| Objectives The purpose of this study was to investigate the intergenerational effects of maternal early life experiences of parent-child separation on their offspring’s cognitive performance and behavioral problems in preschool children and to explore the role of maternal emotional symptoms and parenting practice in such intergenerational effects,with the aim of providing practical solutions and measures to break the intergenerational cycle of adverse parent-child separation effects and improve children’s health status.MethodsIn present study,9 kindergartens in rural areas of Nanling County,Wuhu City,Anhui Province,where the rate of parent-child separation due to migrant workers is high,were selected to recruit preschool children aged 3-6 years.Parents and/or primary caregivers,and classroom teachers of the preschool children to participate in questionnaires or interviews to establish a cohort for early childhood development assessment.A total of2729 preschoolers participated in the baseline survey,of which 2447 preschoolers(1266 boys,51.7%)had complete questionnaire information.The 2447 preschool children were analyzed as a behavioral developmental sample,and children could be divided into two groups based on maternal own parent-child separation status,the group of children with mothers who have experienced parentchild separation(n=372)and the group of children with mothers who have not experienced parent-child separation(n=2075).Based on the information collected from the baseline questionnaire,a total of 484 children with parent-child separation experience in the primary and middle classes of kindergarten were selected to conduct the cognitive development assessment survey in September 2021,and a total of 450 children finally completed the cognitive development assessment,and these 450 children were used as a cognitive development subsample for analysis.In addition,further considering children’s own experiences of parent-child separation,participants were divided into four groups: the group without parent-child separation experience for either mother or child(n=219),the group with parent-child separation experience for child only(n=86),the group with parent-child separation experience for mother only(n=94),and the group with parent-child separation experience for both mother and child(n=91).Then analyzed the data stratified by gender.In the questionnaire survey,the Chinese version of Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire(SDQ)was used to evaluate the emotional and behavioral development of preschool children and other relevant demographic information.The Chinese version of the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence(the Fourth Edition,WPPSI-IV)was used to assess the cognitive development of preschool children,data were entered through the WPPSI-IV cloud-based system to generate the cognitive development including full scale intelligent quotient(FSIQ),verbal comprehension index(VCI),visual spatial index(VSI),spatial index(VSI),fluid reasoning index(FRI),working memory index(WMI),and processing speed index(PSI).Descriptive statistics and differences in basic demographic information,emotional and behavioral problem scores,and cognitive developmental levels(WPPSI-IV assessment components)of preschool children in different parent-child separation groups were compared.Multiple linear regression models were used to evaluate the association of maternal and children’s parent-child separation experiences with preschoolers’ behavior problems and cognitive developmental performance.Also,the mediating effects of parenting practice and maternal psychological status in the intergenerational transmission of maternal early parent-child separation experiences and developmental impairments in preschool children were assessed.ResultsOf the 2447 preschool children in the behavioral development sample,1266(51.7%)were boys and 1121(48.3%)were girls.Of these children,15.2%(372/2447)had mothers who had experienced parent-child separation.Of the 450 preschool children in the cognitive development subsample,214(47.6%)were boys and 236(52.4%)were girls.Compared to children whose mothers did not experience parent-child separation,children whose mothers experienced parent-child separation had internalizing behavior problems(3.70±2.18 vs.4.05±2.37,t=2.787,P<0.01),externalizing behavior problems(5.62±2.78 vs.6.60±2.87,t=6.200,P<0.001),total behavior problems(9.32± 4.17 vs10.64±4.26,t=5.614,P<0.001)were significantly more severe;no significant effect of maternal parent-child separation experience on early cognitive development of offspring was found.Further considering the children’s gender and their own experience of parent-child separation,a stratified analysis explored the effects of intergenerational parent-child separation(i.e.,a combination of maternal and child experiences of parent-child separation)on cognitive and behavioral development.Among boys,compared to preschoolers whose mothers and themselves had not experienced parent-child separation,the externalizing problems(6.55±2.77 vs.5.80±2.82,F=3.95,P<0.01)and overall behavioral problems were more severe in children whose mothers had experienced parent-child separation(9.40±4.28 vs.10.45±4.03,F=5.58,P<0.01),the internalizing problems(3.60±2.21 vs.4.91±2.98,F=5.26,P<0.01)and overall behavioral problems were more severe in children whose mothers and themselves had experienced parent-child separation(9.40±4.28 vs.11.40±5.46,F=5.58,P<0.01),and no effect of intergenerational parent-child separation on cognitive abilities was found;Among girls,compared to preschoolers whose mothers and themselves had not experienced parent-child separation,the externalizing problems(9.07±3.98 vs.6.86±2.81,F=13.76,P<0.001)and total behavioral problems were more severe in children whose mothers had experienced parent-child separation(9.07±3.98 vs.10.88±4.14,F=9.63,P<0.001),the VCI(102.76±9.56 vs 96.90±8.98,F=6.42,P<0.001)and FSIQ were significantly lower in children whose mothers and themselves had experienced parent-child separation(105.76±9.29 vs 99.16±8.91,F=4.72,P<0.01).After adjusting for covariates such as child age,sex,birth weight,body mass index(BMI),screen time,parental education level,household income,maternal adverse childhood experiences,and whether the child was born prematurely or anemic,maternal experience of parent-child separation was associated with more severe internalizing problems(β=0.32,95% CI: 0.07,0.57),externalizing problems(β=0.94,95% CI: 0.63,1.26),and total behavioral problems(β=1.26,95% CI: 0.79,1.73)of offspring were all statistically significant.Intergenerational continuity of the experience of parent-child separation between mother and offspring resulted in a 5.71-point decrease in verbal comprehension scores and a 5.72-point decrease in FSIQ for offspring preschool girls.Child-only parent-child separation or mother-only parentchild separation had no significant effect on preschoolers’ early cognitive development.Chain mediation analysis revealed significant direct effects of maternal parent-child separation experience on child behavior problems(β=0.916,P<0.001),significant effects of maternal parent-child separation on maternal depressive symptoms(β=0.755,P<0.001),and no significant effects on poor family parenting environment and child ACEs;maternal depressive symptoms on poor parenting environment,child ACEs,and child behavioral problems were significant(β values of 0.417,0.046,and 0.485,P values < 0.001);the effect of poor parenting environment on both child ACEs and child behavioral problems was significant(β values of 0.084 and 0.016,P values < 0.001);and the effect of child ACEs on child behavioral problems was significant(β = 0.405,P< 0.001).The overall mediating effect was 0.377,accounting for 29.13% of the total effect.The mediating effect of maternal depression was 0.366,accounting for 28.28%of the total effect,the chain mediating effect of maternal depression and poor parenting was 0.033,accounting for 2.55% of the total effect,the chain mediating effect of maternal depression and child ACEs was 0.014,accounting for 1.08% of the total effect,and the chain mediating effect of maternal depression,poor parenting and child ACEs was 0.011,accounting for effect of 0.85%.ConclusionMaternal own early life experience of parent-child separation has intergenerational effects on preschool children’s behavioral problems.Intergenerational continuity of maternal and child’s experience of parent-child separation had an impairment effect on preschool children’s cognitive development.Children whose mothers experienced early parent-child separation had more behavioral problems,and the intergenerational continuity of parent-child separation could reduce the score of cognitive development in preschool children.Family parenting behaviors as well as maternal mental health symptoms may be potential sociological mediating mechanisms for the intergenerational transmission.Knowledge of maternal early life adversity histories can help to better predict children’s cognitive and behavioral developmental trajectories.Future research on the possible epigenetic mechanisms and sex differences between the association of intergenerational effects and the intergenerational continuity of parentchild separation and cognitive and behavioral development in preschool children would also contribute to the construction of a framework for child growth and developmental processes.In addition,the authors suggest that current child health services should increase mental health treatment and provide parenting skills training for mothers who have experienced parent-child separation to improve child well-being and prevent intergenerational effects of parent-child separation. |
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