Media, emergency warnings and citizen response

Warning sources, human responses and confirmation behavior were examined in a natural emergency (flooding) and a man-made emergency (a hazardous-chemical incident). A review of literature on emergency management and disasters indicated a need for empirical data cutting across natural and man-made hazards, and across slow- and rapid-onset emergencies. Surveys in two communities indicated that mass media were the most frequent warning source in the slow-onset flooding, and that friends and neighbors were most frequent in the rapid-onset chemical emergency. Media communicated little awareness of a threat near to the citizen and slight sense of personal risk. Neither media nor social networks motivated many people to evacuate. Official warnings were the most credible, most effectively communicated high levels of warning content, and produced strong warning belief. Like other sources, officials failed to arouse a sense of severe personal risk. Officials were the source most likely to spur citizens to evacuate. Warning confirmation behavior involved "switching channels," i.e., moving from one type of source to another to seek primary confirmation. Citizens turned from media or officials to social networks, and from social networks to officials. Although social networks were the main secondary confirmation source, they provided little new information in the chemical emergency, but proved more useful in the flooding. Asked about media roles in preparedness campaigns, citizens said the media, television in particular, and neighbors had been their main channels for such information. They proposed that emergency managers also use mail and meetings for preparedness messages, but preferred to turn to officials as sources when searching for more details on community plans. Preferred sources on general community issues matched those named as ideal ones for preparedness issues.; The dissertation suggested that warning/response relationships vary according to warning source and to whether a short or long lead-time hazard is involved. Lessons were drawn for emergency managers concerning roles of officials, mass media and social networks in the response phase the preparedness phase of disaster management. Possible disaster manager-mass media partnership roles were identified.