| Background: Periodontal disease typically presents as a chronic, low grade inflammatory process involving the periodontium. However, it also has the potential to produce systemic effects at distant organs sites and has been linked to several systemic conditions including cancer. Epidemiological studies on the association between periodontal disease and cancer risk are however limited, but most suggest a positive association. Only three studies (3) so far have examined total cancer risk in a prospective study. With respect to individual cancer sites, to our knowledge, no large epidemiological prospective study has examined the association between periodontal disease and colorectal cancer. This is in spite of evidence from experimental studies linking an established periodontal pathogen, Fusobacterium nucleatum, to premalignant and cancerous lesions of the colorectum. This prospective study evaluated the association between periodontal disease and risk of diagnosis of incident total-, as well as, colorectal cancer. Since periodontal disease may influence cancer risk through its ability to induce a chronic, low-grade, systemic inflammation, and serum CRP is an established biomarker of systemic inflammation; this study also investigated the association between prevalence and severity of measured periodontal disease, and serum hsCRP levels. Furthermore, independent evaluations of the role of active gingival inflammation, and presence of select periodontal pathogens, in influencing serum hsCRP levels respectively were conducted. Potential interactions of each of these measures with periodontal disease in relation to serum hsCRP levels were also explored.;Methods: These studies were conducted utilizing data from the Women's Health Initiative Observational Study (WHI-OS). The study included three aims. Aim 1: evaluated the associations between periodontal disease and total cancer; Aim 2: evaluated the association of periodontal disease and colorectal cancer; and Aim 3 evaluated the association of periodontal disease and serum CRP levels. For the total cancer risk study, an analytic cohort of 65,869 postmenopausal women was used, while the colorectal cancer risk study involved 78,835 postmenopausal women. Periodontal disease status for these 2 studies was determined by self-report from the Year 5 Women's Health Initiative Observational Study (WHI-OS) follow-up questionnaire administered from 1999 through 2003. These women were between the ages of 54-86 years at the time the periodontal questionnaire was administered and were followed up for a maximum period of 15 years. Total cancer and colorectal cancer were evaluated using the first diagnosis of any incident cancer or colorectal cancer reported after the year-5 visit respectively. Adjudication of cancer cases was determined via medical records by physicians. The risk of diagnosis of incident total-, regional-, site-specific and colorectal cancers were evaluated using Cox proportional hazards regression. For the association between periodontal disease and serum CRP levels, we conducted a cross-sectional study utilizing data from 620 postmenopausal women (aged 53-83 years) in an ancillary study of the Women's Health Initiative Observational Study (WHI-OS) in Buffalo NY, the OsteoPerio Study. Periodontal disease status was determined using clinical measures based on the Center for Disease Control and Prevention/American Academy of Periodontology (CDC/AAP) clinical case definition for periodontal disease; and independent measures of whole mouth mean, and worst site involvement of periodontal probing depth (PPD), and clinical attachment loss (CAL), respectively. Serum hsCRP concentration was evaluated using an immunoturbidimetric assay. Mean percentage of bleeding sites on gentle probing (>50% cut point), was used to confirm the presence of active gingival inflammation; while presence of select periodontal pathogens (Porphyromonas gingivalis, Tannerella Forsythia, Fusobacterium nucleatum, Prevotella intermedia, and Campylobacter rectus), were detected by immunofluorescence and phase contrast microscopy using pooled sub-gingival plaque samples. All statistical tests were two-sided.;Results: 7,678 cases of primary incident cancer were diagnosed over a mean follow-up of 8.32 years. Periodontal disease history was associated with a 12% statistically significant increased risk of diagnosis of cancer overall, after adjusting for potential confounders [HR 1.12, 95% CI 1.07-1.18]. This finding remained significant among the sample of 34,097 women who had never smoked [HR 1.11, 95% CI 1.02-1.20]. Statistically significant associations were also observed for cancers of the breast [HR 1.10, 95% CI 1.01-1.19]; lung [HR 1.31, 95% CI 1.14-1.51]; esophagus [HR 3.28, 95% CI 1.64-6.53]; gallbladder [HR 1.73, 95% CI 1.01-2.95]; and melanoma skin cancers [HR 1.23, 95% CI 1.02-1.48]. There was a near significant association with stomach cancer [HR 1.58, 95% CI 0.94-2.67], but no associations with cancers of the pancreas or genitourinary system.;There was no association between periodontal disease and risk diagnosis of colorectal cancer, after adjusting for potential confounders [hazard ratio (HR) = 1.08, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.92-1.26]. Similarly, no associations were observed with respect to anatomic location (colon, rectum and recto-sigmoid cancers) and tumor characteristics respectively. There was significant interaction between periodontal disease and diagnosis of colorectal cancer according to hormone therapy (HT) use (p =0.03), and stratified analyses suggest current HT users, particularly of estrogen plus progestin (E+P), with a history of periodontal disease have a higher risk of being diagnosed with colorectal cancer [HR =1.76, 95% CI: 1.20-2.59]. This effect was enhanced on restriction to colon cancer alone [HR =2.02, 95% CI: 1.34-3.05}. However, dose-response effect was not consistent with time on HT use.;Other results from our study indicate that participants with "severe" periodontal disease according to the CDC/AAP Clinical Case Definition demonstrated an almost 2-fold higher odds of having high serum CRP concentrations (>3.0mg/l), compared to those with no/mild disease, after adjusting for potential confounders (OR 1.86, 95% CI 1.06-3.27). Positive, linear, but statistically insignificant associations were observed between whole mouth mean and worst site PPD and CAL measures. None of the select pathogens examined (alone or in groups), or the presence of active gingival inflammation evidenced by percentage of sites that bled on probing (>50%), were associated with serum hsCRP levels. Also, no significant interaction effects were observed between periodontal disease, and any of the pathogens, (alone or in groups), or mean percentage bleeding sites (>50% cut point), on the serum hsCRP concentrations.;Conclusion Periodontal disease may enhance the risk of being diagnosed with total cancer risk in postmenopausal women; this finding persisted when restricting to never smokers. This risk appears to be higher for certain anatomic sites, particularly those in close proximity to the oral cavity such as the esophagus and upper gastrointestinal regions, but does not appear to extend to lower gastrointestinal tract sites such as the colon and rectum. The observed association between women with periodontal disease who are on hormone therapy and risk of being diagnosed with incident colorectal cancer requires further exploration, and we cannot rule out that it may be due to chance. This study also affirms that chronic inflammation may be one mechanism by which periodontal disease is associated with cancer risk. Additional research in other prospective cohorts is needed. |
