| Yao Wendong, born in 1853, grew up in turbulent times. In 1866 (TongZhi 5th year), he took his father's suggestion and attended Shanghai Long Men Institute, which later became well-known across China. In 1871, he continued his further education at Hang Zhou GuJing Study and from the famous scholar Yu Yue. Since the age of 25, Yao has focused on study and research with his younger brother Yao Wennan at Shanghai QiuZhi Study and Shanghai Gujing Study, during which time he finished 13 books. He reviewed the situation then andbecame a specialist in geography. In 1880 (Guangxu 6th year), Yao arrived in Beijing, where he taught and studied at the same time. During his stay, he finished nine passages that were later included in his Theories of Frontier Defense. Two years later, he was sent to Europe on a mission as an ambassador. After his return in 1891, he explored the frontier between Yunnan and Mynmar, which contributed to the success in the Sino-British negotiaton about Yunnan-Myanmar border.Yao Wendong was inspired by the historical background of his era, changing his attitude from "never serve as an official" in his youth to "travel around the world" in his adulthood. On one hand, Yao broadened his view by travelling and made significant progress in study. On the other hand, Qing government provided more opportunities to those who were able to flourish their talents in an informal way. Yao was one among them. In his works, he showed people an outside world through his personal feelings and experiences. Yao's ideas on planning frontier defense were mostly included in his Ideas on the Present Society and Theories of Frontier Defense, in which he showed his active nationalism tendency. His works also contained many new elements in moderization. For example, he emphasized that leaders in charge of frontier defense should be aware of wholeness, that is combination of frontier defense and river defense, cooperation of army and navy, balance of advantages and disadvantages and even strategy of giving up.Yao's strategies of Northwest frontier defense:In the west part of Sino-Russian border, the central government should strengthen the control of Xinjiang and Russia.The Mongolian tribes should be responsible for the defense. Firstly, it was urgent to reform the army. Secondly, the central government should offer Mongolians more help in farming. Besides, he also suggested to use railway to consolidate the frontier. On the northwest boarder between China and Russia, a powerful navy should be built, shouldering the responsibility of defense with the land force. Yao's strategies of Northeast frontier defense:China should form a military alliance with Korea from the perspective of Northeast China defense. Yao put forward the idea of Ryukyu for peace, however this does not mean that he accepted the fact about Japan's invasion of Ryukyu for islands. Yao Wendong had different attitudes to relationship between China and Japan. Before going abroad, he insisted China and Japan make an alliance against Russia. But after his stay in Japan, he change his view on relatinship between China and Japan completely, putting forward in fighting to deter Japan from coverting China's territory. Yao's strategies of Southwest frontier defense:Yao thought that Britain had coveted Yunnan for a long time, which played an important part in the national defense. He strongly opposed to the idea of giving up Savage Mountain, which belongs to China. He demonstrated to set up fortified camp as early as possible. More local farmers were organized to garrison the area and resist foreign aggression while cultivating the land. Yao's strategies of river and coast defense:He pointed out the significant changes in the situation of China's river and coast defensive works. First of all, West powers moved along the coast in the past, but now foreign ships were sailing along the Yangtze River, hence the strategic defensive direction changed from North and South to West and East. Secondly, with the emergence of new channels, China's strategic coast defense had been greatly compressed to a limited space. The advantages of natural barrier had disappeared. Yao demanded to strengthen the construction of the Yangtze River navy, expanding its role from internal defense to external defense.The research work of Yao Wendong reflects the following characteristics. Firstly, the clear epochal features. He got first-hand research materials and achievements due to his close feelings, observation and research, which were quite different from his former scholars. Secondly, the idea of wholeness in planning the frontier defense. While considering how to plan the frontier defense, he preferred to put all the elements together, which tend toimpact each other. Thirdly, the principle of personal practice. Yao strived for practical research all his life. Fourthly, the whole system of his frontier defense theory. Fifthly, the "Practicability" or "Utilitarianism" in Yao' s geographical research. Last but not least, the " Active Defense ", which affords a lesson to the development of modern nation's defense. |
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