Yul Lha Gzhi Dag And Lung Shog Tsho Ba:a Study Of Mountain Cult In Tibetan Society

The practice of making offerings to mountain deities is an important social and cultural marker of Tibetan historical memory and cultural identity. It has played a significant role as a cultural and territorial symbol in shaping ritual community and regional cults in Tibet and other Himalayan areas. Mountain cults have become a strong feature of daily practice and communal worship in Tibetan Buddhism. Mountain deities are apparently linked to the social and geographical context and then re-embedded within the framework of the Buddhist pantheon. This dissertation explores the origin, evolution and classification of mountain deities, based on a variety of sources such as literary offering songs (bsang yig), old inscriptions, rituals, treasure texts (gter ma) and oral traditions in both Tibetan Buddhism and the Bon tradition. This dissertation examines the development of skyeslha, yullha, dgralha, and gzhi bdag (mountain deities) as spyi bla and chos skyong (Dharma protectors) historically. It considers the diverse degrees and distinguishing features of mountain deity worship amongst the Bodic peoples, and some of the Altaic peoples, such as the Mongolians, Hor and SharaYugur on Tibetan plateau and surrounding regions.Mountain deities are essential for social cohesion in Tibet. In particular, they have impacted social forms and rules of sde ba (village), tsho ba (similar to a tribe) and shog kha in Tibetan local society. The dissertation also draws on a study of the central mechanism for the establishment and propagation of mountain deities and its ritual community and territorial societies.In modern society, mountain deity cults undergo a historical change in Chinese-Tibetan inhabited areas. This dissertation designates Dungnak Tsowa in the northwest region of the Dola Ringmo (Qilian shan) mountains in Amdo as the center of research for examining the revival and innovation of mountain deity cults. It illustrates how Dungnak Tibetans facing rapid social and cultural change express their ethnic dignity and cultural identity.