Improving memory for maps and text through dimension, color, and serial order

A considerable body of research supports the claim that students use a variety of cognitive strategies when processing and storing cartographic information (Kulhavy & Stock, 1996; Verdi & Kulhavy, in press; Kulhavy, Stock & Kealy, 1993). The forerunner of this body of research is Dual Coding Theory, which was advanced by Paivio (1986). Paivio's (1986) Dual Coding Theory posits that there are two separate subsystems for storing different cognitive functions: one specialized for verbal information and one for nonverbal information. An extension of this theory is Kulhavy's Conjoint Retention Hypothesis (1985). This hypothesis expands the use of dual coding at recall by allowing students access to both types of conjointly stored representations, increasing the likelihood that students will remember elements from both.; The purpose of this study was to examine the cognitive processes that were at work during encoding and retrieval of features and facts from three-dimensional and two-dimensional reference maps. Subjects viewed either a three-dimensional color or two-dimensional color map, and three-dimensional or two-dimensional grayscale maps. In addition, subjects either studied text written as we read (top to bottom, left to right) or a random ordered text. Of particular interest was whether or not stereoscopic color vision changed the way people encoded information from three-dimensional reference maps versus two-dimensional reference maps. The final area of interest was how text construction affected retrieval of features and facts.; Three predictions were tested in this experiment: First, those subjects who viewed three-dimensional maps would recall more text facts than subjects who viewed two-dimensional maps; Next, subjects who studied a text written as we read (top to bottom, left to right) would recall more information than subjects who studied a text in random order. Finally, subjects viewing a three-dimensional color map would recall more text facts than subjects viewing a two-dimensional color map.; The results of this experiment indicated that subjects who viewed a three-dimensional map recalled significantly more facts than subjects in any other condition. The results of a post experimental questionnaire also yielded some robust findings in favor of dimensionality, color and serial order text across various learning strategies. It is purported that dimensionality provides additional structural information to the map but takes longer to process. This finding is most clearly explained using the model for text learning using organized spatial displays as proposed by Kulhavy and Stock (1996).