The Effect Of Neurofeedback Training On Executive Function And Balance Ability Of College Students

Background:Due to the crucial role that executive function and balance ability play in various domains including sports,education,work,and daily life,as well as their shared neural control by the prefrontal cortex of the brain,which consumes neural resources,there exists some overlap in their neural foundations.With advancements in neuroscience,it has been discovered that the brain exhibits plasticity,meaning that training can lead to improvements in brain function.Neurofeedback,as a non-invasive technique for brain regulation,has the potential to enhance individuals’ autonomous regulatory capacity,thereby improving cognitive and behavioral performance.Thus,this study aims to investigate whether neurofeedback training(NFT)can facilitate the development of executive function and balance ability in college students by enhancing their regulatory capabilities.Objective:Investigating the impact of NFT on the executive function and balance ability of college students;integrating electroencephalogram(EEG),functional near-infrared spectroscopy(fNIRS),and electromyography(EMG)techniques to analyze the underlying mechanisms of changes in executive function and balance ability;and probing the relationship between executive function and balance ability.Method:Sixty-two university students were recruited and randomly assigned to the experimental group and the control group.Both groups received 12 sessions of NFT three times a week.In the experimental group,participants received real-time feedback training,in which brain alpha and theta waves collected by the NFT device were visually presented to the participants as animated feedback.Participants adjusted their brain wave states in response to the feedback information.In contrast,the control group received sham feedback training,in which pre-recorded video animations of neurofeedback training were displayed on the screen in front of them.The display did not change based on the participants’ neural regulation strategies and served as a placebo.Before and after the intervention,the participants’ executive function and balance ability were compared through testing.The three core components of executive function(inhibition control,updating,and shifting)were measured using classic tasks from the field of cognitive psychology:Stroop task,n-back task and more odd shifting task.Simultaneously,EEG and fNIRS devices were utilized to collect brain electrical activity and oxygenated hemoglobin concentrations during the executive function tests.Additionally,static balance ability was evaluated using a plantar pressure and balance system,and dynamic balance was assessed using the Y balance test.EMG devices were used to detect electromyography information from the major lower limb muscles during the balance tests.Repeated Measures ANOVA was employed to statistically analyze the behavioral results of executive function,brain electrical activity,brain oxygenated hemoglobin,and static balance.T-tests were conducted for dynamic balance and electromyography data,while canonical correlation analysis was used to explore the relationship between executive function and balance ability.This comprehensive approach aimed to compare the impact of NFT on executive function and balance ability and to investigate potential reasons for changes in executive function and balance ability from the perspectives of brain function and neuromuscular function.Result:(1)Behavioral outcomes of executive function:In the inhibitory control function test,the experimental group showed a significant improvement in both accuracy and reaction time in the post-test(p<0.05).Comparison of the Stroop effect revealed that the interference effect in the experimental group improved relative to the control group post-intervention,reaching marginal significance(p=0.055).Regarding the refresh function comparison,it was found that the accuracy of the 2-back task in the experimental group significantly increased post-intervention compared to pre-intervention(p<0.01);the reaction time of the post-test in the experimental group also significantly shortened compared to the pre-test(p<0.05).Results of the shifting function test indicated that participants’ accuracy in the more challenging shifting task was significantly lower than in the non-shifting task(p<0.01),with a notable increase in accuracy in the experimental group post-intervention(p<0.01);the reaction time in the post-test for the experimental group was faster than in the pre-test(p<0.05).Additionally,the cost of shifting in terms of accuracy in the post-test was significantly lower in the experimental group compared to the control group(p<0.05),while there was no significant difference in the reaction time cost of shifting between the two groups(p>0.05).(2)EEG results:In the inhibitory control function,at the frontal lobe(Fz electrode point),the post-test of the experimental group elicited larger N2 and P3 amplitudes(p<0.05),with a significant increase in the P3 amplitude for the post-test incongruent task(p<0.001).At the central area(Cz electrode point),the experimental group exhibited a greater P3 amplitude for the incongruent task compared to the control group(p<0.05).Analysis of the EEG during the refresh function task state revealed that at the frontal lobe(Fz electrode point),the post-test P3 component amplitudes and latencies in the experimental group were superior to those in the pre-test(p<0.05).At the parietal lobe(Pz electrode point),the latencies for N2 and P3 components in the post-test were significantly shortened in the experimental group(p<0.05);the N2 latency of the 2-back task in the experimental group was shorter than that of the control group(p<0.01);and the P3 amplitude in the post-test significantly increased(p<0.05).Post-intervention,the N2 amplitude at the occipital region(Oz electrode point)in the experimental group showed a marked improvement(p<0.01).EEG analysis of the shifting function indicated that at the parietal lobe(Pz electrode point),the average N2 and P3 amplitudes in the post-test of the experimental group were significantly higher than the baseline level(p<0.05).At the P4 electrode point,the latencies in the post-test for the experimental group were significantly shorter compared to the control group(p<0.05).(3)fNIRS results:Significant activation in the brain was primarily concentrated in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex(DLPFC).Specifically,during the inhibition control function test,the experimental group’s post-test concentration of oxygenated hemoglobin was significantly higher than the pre-test(p<0.01)and also significantly higher than the post-test value of the control group(p<0.01).In the updating function test,there was a significant main effect in the brain region,with the concentration of oxygenated hemoglobin in the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex being higher than that in the left side(p<0.05);the 2-back task in the experimental group induced a higher level of oxygenated hemoglobin compared to the pre-test(p<0.01).For the shifting function test,the post-intervention oxygenation levels in the experimental group were significantly higher than those in the control group(p<0.01),and also showed a remarkably significant improvement compared to the baseline level(p<0.01).(4)Balance ability results:Comparative analysis of static balance test results revealed that the experimental group showed significant improvements(p<0.05)in the length of the center of pressure(COP)movement trajectory,COP enveloped area,and COP displacement on the y-axis after performing the eyes-closed single-leg stance test.Across the balance tests involving eyes-open double-leg stance,eyes-closed double-leg stance,and eyes-open single-leg stance,no parameters exhibited significant changes before and after intervention(p>0.05).In the dynamic balance assessment using the Y-balance test,both the experimental and control groups did not demonstrate significant differences(p>0.05)in performance compared to baseline in the anterior,postero-medial,and postero-lateral directions post-intervention.Furthermore,there were no significant alterations(p>0.05)in the composite Y-balance scores for both groups pre-and post-intervention.(5)EMG results:Following the intervention,the experimental group exhibited a significant increase(p<0.05)in the electromyographic activity of the tibialis anterior muscle during eyes-closed single-leg stance testing,while the electromyographic activity of the gastrocnemius reached marginal significance(p=0.058)compared to the pre-test measurements.No significant changes(p>0.05)were observed in the electromyographic activity of the lower limb muscles during eyes-open double-leg stance,eyes-closed double-leg stance,eyes-open single-leg stance,and dynamic balance analyses before and after the intervention.(6)Relationship between Executive Function and Balance Ability:Before and after the intervention,it was found that there was a moderate positive correlation(0.5≤|r|≤0.8)between executive function and balance ability in both the experimental group and the control group.The degree of correlation between the two variables was not significantly affected by NFT(p>0.05).Conclusion:(1)NFT can have a positive impact on the executive function of sports major college students.The performance of executing functional behaviors shows good training benefits.At the same time,it was also found that when the brain processes information related to executive functions,the amplitude of related EEG components increases,the concentration of oxygenated hemoglobin in the prefrontal cortex increases,and the activation level is higher.These cognitive processing features of the brain indicate that neural feedback training is beneficial for promoting brain function,enabling individuals to have stronger neural resource recruitment abilities when completing cognitive processing tasks,thereby improving executive functions represented by inhibitory control,refresh,and conversion functions.(2)NFT can effectively enhance static balance ability,particularly in the performance of balance during closed-eye single-leg standing.Electromyography testing revealed that neurofeedback training can enhance the discharge activity of the tibialis anterior muscle during closed-eye single-leg standing,thereby increasing excitability and providing support for the body’s balance control.(3)There is a positive correlation between executive function and balance ability.