| With the increasing development of China's economy and the effectiveness of poverty alleviation,special poverty in the concentrated areas such as the old liberated areas,mountainous areas,ethnic minority areas and immigrant reservoir areas has become the main battlefield of China's national poverty alleviation.As China's largest project of water conservancy with the largest immigration,the Three Gorges Project has changed the natural environment,eco-environment and human living environment of the Three Gorges Reservoir Region(TGRR).Due to the complex geological conditions of the TGRR,geological disasters often occur,soil erosion is serious,and water pollution also cannot be underestimated.Large-scale resettlement and large number of flooded paddy fields and houses made the poverty reduction demands of immigrants become more complex,and their desire for poverty eradication has become more intense,with the changing climate and ecological environment.Recently,the TGRR is facing the dilemma of "a vicious cycle of poverty".After several years of implementation of the poverty alleviation policies,the existing poor population in the TGRR is still large,forming the "the most difficult task" of taking targeted measures in poverty alleviation.The poverty in this region has shown particularly complex performances,when the complex geological conditions,the large-scale resettlement and livelihoods of immigrants are intertwined with the deterioration of eco-environment.Then,what are the characteristics of current immigrant poverty? What are the trends of the regional poverty? What is the interaction between the eco-environment and the poverty? What is their deep-level impact mechanism and theoretical basis? Can this be empirically tested? How can we balance the development of poverty alleviation and the improvement of ecological environment in the TGRR? In order to answer these questions,this paper intends to scientifically explore the interaction mechanism between the eco-environment and the poverty in the TGRR through systematic theoretical analyses and empirical studies,in an attempt to propose corresponding policy suggestions.Based on literature and theoretical reviews,the paper follows the research route of "measurement-coupling coordination-interaction" to analyze the interaction betweeneco-environment and poverty.It consists of seven chapters in three parts: Part 1,theoretical basis.Chapter 1 and Chapter 2 provide the theoretical basis and establish the framework for theoretical analysis to lay a solid foundation and bedding for the subsequent empirical research.Specifically,Chapter 1 is the introduction,mainly the literature review and the basic contents of this paper.The existing literature review makes a solid foundation for the follow-up theoretical analysis;Chapter 2 is the theoretical framework,in which we defines six theories including feasible capacity theory,environmental Kuznets curve(EKC)and driving-force-response(DSR)model as the theoretical basis for the empirical study in this paper.Part 2,empirical study.On the basis of the previous theory,from Chapter 3 to Chapter 6,we carry on empirical studies on the interaction mechanism between the poverty and eco-environment in the TGRR.Chapter 3 and Chapter 4 are based on two different angles both microscopic and macroscopic,and take factors of eco-environment into concern to measure the poverty of the TGRR,which is the initial exploration of the interaction between poverty and eco-environment.Chapter 5 and Chapter 6 construct the models to analyze the interaction between poverty and eco-environment in the TGRR.Specifically,Chapter 3researches on the microscopic measure of immigrant poverty in the TGRR and the causes of poverty.Based on the theory of feasible capacity,from the perspective of the multidimensional poverty,we take the rural ecological dimensions(health,drinking water and land)into account,and measure the multidimensional poverty of immigrants before and after immigration,then figure out the causes of poverty from the perspective of population heterogeneity.Chapter 4 discusses about the macroscopic measure of immigrant poverty and eco-environment in the TGRR.Based on the DSR model and green poverty reduction theory,we regard the eco-environment,geology,climate and other factors as the influencing factors of poverty.Then,we use BP neural network to calculate the regional poverty reduction index,and GIS to analyze the spatial and temporal distribution of poverty reduction pressures in various districts and counties,and decoupling analysis to analyze the coupling relationship between eco-environment and poverty in the TGRR.Chapter 5 studies on the impacts of poverty on the ecological environment in the TGRR: from the perspective of agricultural environmental Kuznets curve.We adopt the Granger causality test to verify the long-term equilibrium interaction between the poverty and the eco-environment in the TGRR.Then,it discusses about the impact of immigrant poverty on the eco-environment,from theperspective of agricultural EKC.Based on the EKC model,taking the spatial autocorrelation into account,we adopt spatial panel analysis to study on the agricultural EKC in the TGRR.Chapter 6 researches on the impacts of ecological environment on poverty in the TGRR: from the perspective of agro-ecological efficiency,based on the eco-efficiency theory,we discuss the changes and characteristics of agro-ecological efficiency in the TGRR.Then,we use Malmquist Index and multi-stage model to analyze the agro-ecological efficiency and explore the driving factors of efficiency.Panel data model based on cross correlation and regression coefficient is used to analyze the impact of agro-ecological efficiency on the poverty of the TGRR.Part 3,conclusions and suggestions.Chapter 7 is the conclusions and suggestions of the paper,in which we summarize the main conclusions of this study,and put forward corresponding policy suggestions.Based on the questionnaire of 798 immigrant households in four counties and the relevant statistical yearbooks and bulletins,we adopt the methodologies such as the dual cut-off method,spatial panel regression,DEA,Malmquist index,Panel data model based on cross correlation and regression coefficient,BP neural network and GIS to make a systematic study on the immigrant poverty and the interaction between poverty and eco-environment in the TGRR,with the following conclusions:1.The major performances of poverty in the TGRR are poverty in assets,poverty in education and poverty in health.The contradictions of land scarcity,sanitary and water are prominent,which indicates that the problems of eco-environment in the TGRR can not be underestimated.The results show that in poverty in assets,land scarcity is getting deteriorated,which has a negative effect on immigrants' livelihood.The poverty contribution rate of land is 29.52%.The poverty gap of land increases from 0.42 to 0.82,and its poverty depth increases from 0.18 to 0.67.The number and the quality of land are both declining,which exacerbates ecological pressure of the TGRR.For poverty in education,the plight of middle and old age's education is more prominent.The contribution rate of education poverty is 17.96%,and the average education level of the labor force in the TGRR is low,so the higher education level will lead to and intensify the multidimensional poverty of immigrants,in the case of insufficient ability to resist the livelihood risk.For poverty in health,currently,there are still 12.75% of the impoverished immigrants without medical insurance and 11.36% without pension insurance.At the same time,thepercentage of medical expenditure has a significant impact on the multidimensional poverty of immigrants.Thus,the performance of poverty caused by disease is prominent.There are 42.08% and 39.58% of the impoverished immigrants still in poverty of sanitary and water after immigration.Land,sanitation and water affect the eco-environment of the TGRR.If they are not protected properly,the pressure of ecological poverty reduction in the TGRR creeps up.2.The overall poverty situation in the TGRR is improving,but the lack of local resources and environmental carrying capacity leads to a higher cost of eco-environment for poverty reduction.The regional differences in poverty reduction are evident,it shows a polarization trend in the head of the TGRR,the "poverty sinking" trend in the middle,and the "vicious circle" in the tail.The results show that the overall poverty situation in the TGRR is improving,but the poverty reduction of 76% of the districts and counties accompanied by the speeding eco-environment damage.The higher the poverty alleviation index,the lower the pressure on green poverty reduction.The average value of the poverty alleviation index has risen from 2.569 in 2007 to 4.372 in 2013,which indicates that green poverty alleviation pressure has been gradually reduced,but 76% of the districts and counties show "hook development".The eco-environment of the TGRR is fragile,and the carrying capacity of resource and environment is difficult to load.In the head of the TGRR,Yiling and Zigui have achieved absolute de-link,while their pressure of poverty reduction is low.The maximum poverty alleviation index in Badong is only 2.8376,which is much lower than the mean value of the head,forming a concentrated contiguous poverty zone with the middle of the TGRR together.In the middle of the TGRR,71.4% of the districts and counties are located in areas with high poverty reduction pressure,while Badong,Wushan,Fengjie and Yunyang are in contiguous forms.In the tail area of the TGRR,Jiulongpo,Shapingba,Nan'an,Jiangbei and Dadukou have been a strong re-link state,which means that some areas of Chongqing main city are in an "ecological-poverty vicious circle".3.The agricultural chemicals in the TGRR have a certain degree of "imitation and convergence" relationship.The spatial effect makes the actual“poverty-ecological environment” relationship better than expected.The results show that after taking the spacial factors into the analysis of agricultural EKC,the results of spatial Durbin panel regression show that the values offerW)(ln* and pesW)(ln* are positive and significant at statistical level of 1%.It is proved that there is a certain degree of spatial "imitation and convergence" of agricultural chemicals among the counties of the TGRR.The income spillover effect caused by the increased income disparity between urban and rural areas in neighboring areas will significantly affect the amount of chemical fertilizer applied in the local area.Increased investment in agriculture could stimulate local rural populations to increase investment in pesticide use.After taking the spatial factors into consideration,the environmental inflection point of the fertilizer dropped from the per capita net income of 11,122 yuan to 9,946 yuan,and that of the pesticide dropped from the per capita net income of 11,775 yuan to 11,104 yuan.That is,the spatial "imitation and convergence" relationship has brought the theorical inflection point of the TGRR forward.Therefore,enhancing the efficiency of poverty reduction work may make the eco-environment become better.4.The scale efficiency of the agricultural ecological efficiency in the TGRR is declining gradually,and the redundancy of agricultural chemicals investment in the TGRR is prominent,which is too high eco-environmental costs to pay for agricultural economic output and unconducive to the green poverty reduction.The results show that in terms of scale efficiency,only 52% of the districts and counties in the TGRR has a scale efficiency value of less than 1,which means that the scale efficiency of the TGRR is decreasing in the process of agro-ecological efficiency development.The lowest proportion of agricultural chemicals is 22.15%,and the highest proportion is 76.09%.It means that under the current production conditions,there is an excessive usage of pesticides and fertilizers,in order to obtain the agricultural economic output.We have to pay for a higher ecological cost for maintaining the level of production.Especially for Badong,Wanzhou and Fuling,the delivery of agricultural chemicals will not bring additional economic returns on the one hand,and it fall into the trend of diminishing scale on the other,making agricultural production loss outweigh the gain.This is against the development requirements of the green poverty reduction,which is unfavourable for the dual sustainable development of poverty alleviation and the eco-environment.5.There is a steady interaction between poverty and ecological environment in the TGRR.This shows that when the poverty status is being relieved,the agro-ecological environment will get worse first and then improved.Theagricultural EKC of the TGRR is an inverted "U" curve.The spatial effect makes the actual poverty-ecological relative situation better than expected.On the other hand,the heterogeneity of agricultural ecological efficiency has a significant impact on immigrant poverty.The higher the agro-ecological efficiency,the less the poverty of the county.The results show that the per capita net income of farmers in the reservoir region is the Granger cause of the amount of fertilizer applied per unit area,the amount of pesticides used and the amount of agricultural films adopted.On the contrary,the amount of fertilizer applied and the amount of pesticide used are also the Granger cause of the per capita net income of farmers.On the whole,it is particularly evident that the variables of poverty and that of agro-ecological environment are Granger reasons of each other in the agricultural area of the TGRR.It can be seen that the interaction between poverty and eco-environment is very significant in the TGRR.From the perspective of the impact of poverty on eco-environment,the results show that the inflection point of the fertilizer EKC is per capita net income of 9,946 yuan and that of the pesticide EKC is 11,104 yuan,after considering the spatial autocorrelation.According to the per capita net income statistics of the TGRR in 2013,there are still76.9% of the counties that have not reached the inflection point of fertilizer EKC,and69.2% of the counties that have not reached the inflection point of pesticide EKC.From the perspective of the impact of poverty on eco-environment,it can be seen that from the results of Pooled OLS(POLS),fixed-effect model(FE),group mean regression(MG)and common correlated effects mean group estimate(CCEMG),the higher the agro-ecological efficiency in a certain area of the TGRR,the more the immigrant poverty can be alleviated.The results of the CCEMG method show that the improvement of regional agro-ecological efficiency can promote the poverty alleviation efforts.At the same time,it is found that the expansion of urban-rural disparity is not conducive to poverty alleviation.The innovations of this paper are:(1)It has made an in-depth analysis of the performances and the causes of multidimensional poverty.Based on the dual cut-off method,this paper studied on the changes of the multidimensional poverty status of immigrants before and after immigration in the TGRR,with a break-through of the single poverty analyzing method,such as the poverty line,to enrich the theoretical literature in this field.Moreover,basedon the population heterogeneity,it analyzed the causes of multidimensional poverty,making a more profound description of immigrant poverty.(2)It has revealed the spatial and temporal distribution characteristics of poverty reduction pressure in the TGRR.The academic community has not yet reached the theoretical consensus that the eco-environment will prove to be a catalyst for poverty,under the background of the deteriorating global environment.The academia also ignored the fact that the ecological factors may be a component of regional poverty.In this paper,the eco-environment is included in the measurement of regional poverty,which conducts the indicator system of green poverty reduction pressure.Then,the spatiotemporal changes of poverty in the TGRR is analyzed.Therefore,this study has had a broader version and pattern of poverty alleviation through quantitative analyses,from the perspectives of ecological poverty reduction and green poverty reduction.(3)It has constructed a theoretical model for the interaction between immigrant poverty and eco-environment in the TGRR.Most of the current literatures for the study of the relationship between eco-environment and poverty did not take the impact of spatial autocorrelation into consideration on the one hand,it did not explore the impact of ecological efficiency heterogeneity on poverty on the other.This paper analyzes the impact of poverty on the eco-environment based on the spatial regression model,and the impact of agro-ecological efficiency on immigrant poverty based on the panel data model and cross correlation and regression coefficient.In so doing,this paper has built a more comprehensive theoretical model for the interaction between immigration poverty and eco-environment in the TGRR. |
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