US Energy Security And The Oil In The Gulf Of Guinea:an Analysis Of The US Securitization Of Nigeria From 2000-2008

Defined as, "the uninterrupted availability of energy sources at an affordable price", the energy security has occupied a paramount place in the field of International Relations over the past three decades. In the US, the energy security has always occupied a paramount place in the US federal government priorities as it is an important factor of its national security. The US relies heavily on energy to not only sustain its economic growth and entertain its multiple military operations in the world, but also to enable the American citizens to meet their daily needs such as electricity for running their business, industries, transportation, heating for homes in winter and for cooling among others.However, since the 9/11 attacks, the US has been engaged in an unprecedented quest of energy. Three months after their arrival to power, the Bush administration issue a policy report on the energy situation of the country. A section in the report also known as Cheney report titled "diversity of supply" pointed out that the national security is under threat and that it’s a necessity for US to diversify its oil supply thus opening up more to regions like Africa, the Caribbean, Asia, and Venezuela etc. With a particular attention on Africa, the report suggests that:"West Africa is expected to be the fastest growing source of oil and natural gas for the American market"Though, the Nigerian oil reserves cannot be compared to the Persian Gulf in term of oil reserve and production, the Nigerian oil received a particular attention from the Bush administration soon after his arrival in power. The reasons of this particular attention to Nigeria are, first with its estimated 25 billion barrels of proven oil reserves, and with a total production of 2.5 million barrel per day, Nigeria is by the far the richest oil country in Sub-Saharan Africa. The Nigerian oil reserves represent 25% of the total African oil reserve and 2.5% of the world crude oil reserve. In addition to the proven oil reserve, Nigeria continues to record new oil reserve discoveries and in an important quantity. Second, compared to the Persian oil, the quality of the Nigerian oil is deemed to be good and contains low sulfur which makes it easy to refine. It’s reported that 65% of the Nigerian oil has 35 of API (American Petrolum Institute) indices. That good quality of the Nigerian oil, also known as bonny light makes the westerns countries more interested in the Nigerian oil. That bonny light is highly valued by automobilists.Third, the Nigeria geographic position is an important asset. Nigeria is the Epicenter of the Gulf of Guinean region. And as the General Van Dyke further say "Who control the Gulf of Guinea, control Africa". In addition Nigeria is relatively close to US compared to the Middle East which makes the transportation much easier and faster.Yet, the objective of our research is to analyze how the US elites have constructed some identified threats like (terrorism, maritime piracy, poverty) through a security discourse. It also aims to answer questions like:It also argues that US securitized Nigeria thanks to security a discourse based on different speech act by the different interest groups and elites who successfully portrayed Nigeria as the epicenter of the violence in the Gulf of Guinean rich oil region. The dramatization of the presence of Militias and terrorist groups through a well calculated discourse with alarmist vocabulary has largely contributed in legitimizing the US increased military presence and security assistance to Nigeria under the Bush administration.This study uses the securitization theory. The securitization theory is founded by the Copenhagen school comprising of Barry Buzan and Ole Weaver. According securitization theory, security is socially constructed. Naming a stake as a security problem allows the securitizing actor to obtain in its securitizing move special powers to deal with it the issue. The securitization happens when securitizing actors’identify an issue and claims that a referent object is existentially threatened and that the audience accepts to legitimize the request of the actors. In this case, the extraordinary measures are taken to eradicate the threat.In order the securitization process to take place, there must be first of all a referent object "things that are seen to be existentially threatened and that have a legitimate claim to survival". The referent object can be an individual, sovereignty, national security, energy security etc. However, in order the securitization process to be successful, there must be an audience to legitimize the political elite’s claims. It can be in the case of a democratic regime, the congress, the national assembly or also the public opinion who blesses the use of the extraordinary measures claimed by the agents. In the case of our research study, the referent object is US energy security, US national security. The securitizing actors are US administration George Bush, Dick Cheney, Individual interests groups (Chevron Texaco, ExxonMobil, etc.).As for the audience, and it’s the congress, the Senators and the public opinionSince the securitization theory implies study of "discourse and political constellation" according to Barry Buzan, in this context discourse analysis helps to better answer the main research question of this thesis. On top of that, critical discourse fits better in our research as it "offers a "thick description’of the social practices associated with it. In this research study also, the researcher studies the texts and analyzes the different language acts and the choice of different sentences, adjectives, verbs, style, used by the securitizing actors. In short, this research will be limited to textual analysis as suggested by Buzan.Yet Nigeria is far from being a safe haven that could allow US to meet their goal in terms of energy security under the presidency of Bush. In fact Nigeria and more specifically the Niger Delta which is the oil rich region is affected by different kinds of criminal activities ranging from organized crime, transnational crimes, maritime piracy, terrorism by Boko Haram and armed robbery among others.In addition to these concerning security problems, Nigeria is also hit by acute structural problem. In fact, fifty years after its independence, Nigeria is still taking time to get developed as it was supposed to be in normal time. And its socio economic situation faces serious structural challenges and remains today one of the least advanced in the continent. Despite its rich soil endowed by immense natural resources ranging from oil, gas, hydrocarbon, gold, diamond etc...Nigeria is still classified low income counties with a very low human development index estimated at 0.47. Nigeria fails to meet the needs of its population which is severely affected by high level of poverty, social exclusion, urbanization, and a high rate of unemployment for youth. This paradox highlights the bad governance that has been plaguing the country since its independence gained in 1960 till nowadays.This situation worries too much the American authorities. This is understandable if we know that US imports 42% of the Nigerian total production and important US multinationals oil cooperation such as Chevron Texaco, ExxonMobil, Hess, Ocean energy have important investment in the region especially in the oil sector in the Niger Delta. According to James J Forest, it is estimated that companies invested over $10 billion in Nigeria. Those investments were likely to increase to $20 billion according to David O’Reilly, the Chevron Texaco chief executive. James J. F. Forest and Matthew expresses this fear by:"The biggest threat to security in Nigeria is the criminal oil cartels operating in the Niger Delta who a leading the sub region along a chaotic, lawless path not unlike Nigeria"In this vein, the US most influential think tanks, elites and oil lobbies also known as fossil fuel lobbies, did not spare any expense in engaging in an intense securitizing move based on different speech acts in order to present the referent object that is the US energy security and the national security which are threatened by existential threats such as terrorism, piracy, poverty, arms robbery, transnational organism crimes in Nigeria.The use of terms such as "violence" "volatile" "terrific" in their discourse shows that the prevailing situation in the regions is very concerning. The reasons of this is because the presence of "well armed" militias in the regions. They have not said only militias, but ""well-armed". "The utilization of the adjective ’well’ amplifies the threat perception of militia. Here the existential threat is clearly identified by the securitizing actor which is the first step in the securitization process.Through this securitization move, the agent introduced new information. It means that this is a new situation in Africa if we know that despite the existence of several militias in Africa, it’s the first time to see "well armed Militias." Militias in the region were known to fight with rudimentary means. In addition militias operating in the Niger Delta have "sophisticated weapons".For the securitizing actors, the fact of uttering the existential threat that are the militias that clamp down in the Niger Delta and identifying the referent object which the US energy security creates the degree of reality of the threat. The only fact to talk about the security participates in constructing the threat perception. In other words, security begins with a simple speech act.According to Buzan and Al, during a securitization process, the securitizing actor can identify more than one existential threat. Thus the securitization move goes on with other identified existential threats in Nigeria:TerroristsIn fact, since the early 2000s, and particularly since the attacks of 11 September 2001, the United States has multiplied the counter terrorism initiatives. The discourse on the fight against terrorism has stolen the limelight from other security issues. Some securitizing actors have first tried to build the Islam threat perception in Nigeria by associating Muslims in Nigeria as supporters of Al-Qaida and shelter provider to this most dreadful terrorist group in the world. Yet, if some securitization actors focused on the large Muslim population to begin a securitization move to construct the terrorism threat, others however security discourse were based on the tortuous past of the Nigeria which is marked by unprecedented religious violence to build the Islamist threat.In fact, throughout its history until contemporary times, Nigeria has experienced different fundamental Islamist movements of different level of violence with different ideologies. The North of the country, mainly composed of Muslims has been known as the longstanding fundamental Islamist stronghold. It has also been the theatre of most violent. This part of Nigeria which was historically the kingdom of Borno has always been the Islamic stronghold marked by a succession of different generation of charismatic religious leaders who espoused radical ideologies such as Sallafi and Wahhabi ideologies imported from the Arabic countries in dealing their society.Already in 1886 Ousmane Dan fodio established the sokoto caliphate. That epoch coincided with the British colonialism which sought to spread christianism across the North and the rest of the country. That attempt to Christianize the Northern population collided with the categorical opposition of the local Muslim community. A century later, the Northern Nigeria presents the same characteristic of being conservative regarding the religion. By the early 1980s the movement, called Maitastine had developed a radical ideology. The movement, which was led by Mohammed Marwa, killed ruthlessly non-believers and Westerners. The movement adopted the same ideology as that of the Muslim Brotherhood, which was founded in Egypt by Syd Qutb, and which advocated for a purification of Islam and a complete return to the real foundations of Islam as practiced by the prophet Mohamed and the rejection of western culture.This valuable information about Nigeria’s past which is well known by the securitizing actor was well exploited in order to amplify the terrorism threat on the US interests in the country. For example, expressions like "There-have-been some ups and downs in Nigeria." "Some --other radical movements-have shaken the country." "A long dry Existing religious radical" have been widely used by the American elites in their speech act in order to entertain the fear of terrorism before calling for intervention to protect the oil that is under threat.In fact, over the eight years of the Bush tenure, we noted the relentless use of expressions such as "fight against terrorism", "Global war on terror", "terrorist threat" etc... Indeed, in a post-September 9/11 context, these expressions were very popular and were systematically repeated at a frantic rate in official discourse and in the media. It was likewise in that context that accelerated the securitization of Afghanistan with abusive repetition in the administration, in the media the existence of weapon of Mass destruction (WMD). This media hype backed by a good speech act has succeeded to convince the public opinion and the congress to securitize Afghanistan successfully.This same process is utilized to obtain the blessing of the congress for better a protection of oil facilities and multi form interventions in Nigeria. Indeed during his visit to Africa in 2003, Nigeria has constituted an important step for the President Bush George Bush. The discourse on terrorism and counterterrorism has been very present in his speech. Expressions like’terrorist "risk" "vulnerability" "oil" was repeated several times. This rhetoric was utilized by the President in order to show that the US interest Americans in Nigeria which are primarily based on oil is endangered by the terrorists.This visit almost coincided with the creation of the Islamist group Boko Haram in late 2002. This group became the most dreadful terrorist group in Africa. According to Yusuf the founder of Boko Haram, the group’s main mission is to fight against the’West" and they stand against any thing that is associated with the western civilization hence its name Boko Haram, which literally means that Western civilization is a sin. The Islamist group also opposed the establishment of schools and seeks to enforce sharia law in all Nigerian territory. Boko Haram has not taken too long to attack openly the West especially the Americans. In several audio messages, the leader of the group threatened to attack the interests of the Americans by sabotaging the oil installations in the south of the country. These threats were taken seriously by the administration U.S. A supply disruption of oil Nigeria would have heavy impact on the American economy and it could directly threaten the national security. On a firm tone, the President George Bush stated:"We will live every resource at our command-every means clustering of diplomacy, every tool of intelligence, every instrument of law enforcement, every financial influence, and every Necessary weapon of war-to the destruction and to the defeat of the global terror network."The stakes are high. And the expressions and verbs used by the President show it. First, through the speech it is clear that the existential threat is identified and it is the "terror network". Even if the referent object is not explicitly mentioned, the context shows that it is the U.S interests more precisely the oil supplies that are threatened. Bush made an open declaration of war against the terrorists. Through his speech, we also see that the issue of energy security has been withdrawn from the purely political and economic realm and placed below all other issues. The repetition and emphasis on "every" shows the determination of the President. And in the same way he claims for the use of extraordinary measures to contain the terrorist threat.After the securitizing move, comes the third and last part of the securitization process:the legitimization. Following an alarmist security discourse that helped portraying Nigeria as the Africa’s epicenter of violence and the hotbed of terrorism, extraordinary measures have been taken with the blessing of the legislative branch. Despite the arms sales ban on Nigeria, the US authorities have succeeded in convincing the Congress. As a security issue to allocate important resources and the Congress justified it by ""the Nigeria’s importance as a leading supplier of petroleum to the U.S." and the fact that "Nigeria is the fifth largest source of U.S. oil imports." "disruption of supply from Nigeria would represent a major blow to the oil security strategy of the U.S.". This opened a new era in the US Nigeria relations that were very strained. It has allowed the US to legitimize its presence in the country with a strong contingent including warships to patrol the Niger delta coast.These extraordinary measures were not limited only on security aspect but encompass the development, democracy and the social aspects. The legitimization of the securitization actor’s claim can be justified by the increasing budget by the Congress of the development aid. An increasing US implication in the consolidation of the Nigerian democracy has been noted. The Congress has allocated important resources to strengthen and the Nigerian civil society organizations to better play their role of watchdog. The US has also played a major role in pacifying the political space in Nigeria by favoring inclusive dialogue between opposition parties, the party in power and the civil society organization.The thesis is divided into six chaptersChapter one introduces the thesis. Chapter one also provides an overview of the existing literature on securitization. It also explains the significance of the topic. It argues that, oil and energy security occupies a paramount place in international relations. It also states that the thesis makes a theoretical contribution to the existing literature by introducing securitization as the theoretical framework. The chapter also provides a comprehensive study of the security concept by comparing and contrasting the concept of security.Chapter two discusses the role and place of Nigeria in the global oil provision. The chapter is divided into 3 sections. The first section makes a brief overview of the Nigerian political economic and social situation. It highlights the paradox prevailing in the country that is despite being the largest oil producer in Africa, the majority of the Nigerian population lives under the poverty line. The second section deals with the Nigerian oil industry. It argues that the Nigerian oil industry is synonymous with corruption and a source of distress of a big number of the Niger Delta region. Because of a repeated oil spillage, the local people are not able to fish and farm. The last explains the reasons why Nigeria has emerged as a world leading oil producer. It also explains the motivation behind the choice of Nigeria by great and emerging powers.Chapter three discusses the evolution and development of the US energy security policy. It also highlights the major events marking the US energy security such as thel973,1979 oil crisis and its implication in the future of the US energy security. The last part of the chapter analyses the Bush energy security policy and analyses the major decisions taken. It asserts that the Bush administration was oil centric. It further argues that the fossil fuel lobbies which represent a powerful interest group have largely contributed in reshaping the US energy policy and the security agenda under the Bush tenure.Chapter four focuses on the nexus between the Nigerian oil and the US energy security. The chapter first reviews the diplomatic relation between Nigeria and US. The relationships of the two counties have been marked by ebb and flow over the past four decades. It asserts that despite that, the US never dared to impose an embargo on the Nigerian oil. The last part of the chapter studies the Nigerian oil and the US energy security nexus. It argues that as its largest economic partner in Africa with 42% of oil imports from Nigeria, Nigeria is key to US energy security.Chapter five studies and analyses the security discourse that was used for the construction of the threat perception or the securitization. Four major existential threats were identified by the securitizing actor in their securitizing move:the threat posed by the militia, by terrorism, bad governance and the acute poverty and the unemployment of the youth. This research study argues that each of these threats through a particular language act were successfully constructed and presented as the most imminent threat to US energy security and national security. This has urged the use of extraordinary measures such as a military assistance, selling arms to Nigeria despite the ban, joint military drill, and US implication to the consolidation of the democracy of Nigeria. All these listed measures have almost never existed before the 9/11 despite the fact that US has always imported oil from Nigeria.Chapter six concludes the paper. It highlights the main findings of the research study. It first argues that the Nigerian oil is vital to US national interest and that is the reason why US securitized Nigeria. It also reviews to condition of the successful securitization. It argues that the special relationship between Bush (who was also a multinational oil company manger) and the fossil fuel lobbies and his close collaborators (such as Dick Cheney) have greatly contributed to the success of the securitization of Nigeria. Additionally, the research has highlighted the importance of speech act in framing an issue as a security issue and how the security problem in Nigeria has been erected as a highly security issue.