Zi-Ka-Wei Observatory (1873-1950) Under The Territorial Expansion Of European Modern Science

As the first modern science institute in China, Zi-Ka-Wei Observatory was founded and managed by Jesuits in 1873. It's one of the Jesuit Observatories which were built after the restoration of the Society of Jesus in 1814. Some of the Jesuits scientists working in this observatory were members of French Academy of Sciences or Paris Observatory, and their papers often appeared on the science issues in Europe including the Weekly Bulletin of French Academy of Science or published in Europe, so their work could also be regarded as a part of European republic of Science.This position makes Zi-Ka-Wei Observatory a sample by which we can observe the relationship between modern science and the extension of Europe, investigate the history of Jesuit Observatory and the history of transplantation of modern science into China.This dissertation, based on the first-hand archives and literatures, studies the history of Zi-Ka-Wei Observatory which grew up during late 19th to first half of the 20th century, from the perspective of scientific imperialism and the expansion of Europe science, so as to discover the history clues of Zi-Ka-Wei Observatory in the context that European Modern Science expanded to more and more regions all over the world. At the same time, this study provides a different approach to study the intercultural communication between China and the West during late Tsing to MinGuo.Chapter Two, Foundation and Early Investigation of Zi-Ka-Wei Observatory, focuses on the foundation and early investigation of Zi-Ka-Wei Observatory, trying to answer the questions such as: why did Jesuits found the observatory in Zi-Ka-Wei? While big powers loaded in China carving up the interests, how could Zi-Ka-Wei Observatory, as a private institution, win its position?Chapter Three, Foundation of Zo-Se Astronomical Observatory and its astronomical observations and calculations, focuses on the history that the Jesuits of Zi-Ka-Wei Observatory founded another astronomical observatory at Zo-Se and initiated their astronomical enterprise. While the scientific investigation of every branches in Zi-Ka-Wei Observatory attained a high level, why did Jesuits create the astronomical enterprise?Chapter Four and Chapter Five are case studies. The International Longitude Determination in 1926 and 1933 was an international project dominated by France. It was also the most important scientific measurement project during its golden ages. Chapter Four, Golden Ages: International Longitude Determination, specializes in this project and various clues about it, trying to answer this question: To measure the longitude in higher precision seeming a purely scientific pursuit, how was it achieved through the extension of Europe.Chapter Five, Golden Ages: Measurements Fulfilled in 1930s, focuses on the two projects below: observations of intensity of gravity in China and mapping and publishing Geomagnetic Map in China (Carte magnétique de Chine). Based on scientific content, it analyzes the contest of dominion and interests behind the scientific project, conflict, compromise and cooperation between the local science circles and their European colleagues in the project.Chapter Six, Decline during the Wartime and End after the War, studies on the development during wartime and post-war period, to reveal the inevitability and the feasibility of Zi-Ka-Wei Observatory after the war.Chapter Seven, Conclusion, based on the above studies, re-analyzes the works and the characteristics of Zi-Ka-Wei Observatory in the process of the expansion of Europe from late 19th to the first half of the 20th century. Furthermore, this chapter reveals the relationship between the development of Zi-Ka-Wei Observatory and the territorial expansion of European modern science. Considering the scientific works of Zi-Ka-Wei Observatory, we can find that they shared four characteristics: firstly, they all specialized in observing the nature directly and analyzing the data from these observations; secondly, these investigations depended largely on the development of observational instruments; thirdly, the information and knowledge collected through the above observations all share the same mode of study, i.e., forming a complete image about the world and a complete system of knowledge gradually through collecting and analyzing regional knowledge; fourthly, all the data through observation are useful and practical.The four points mentioned above imply that modern science, as a complete system of knowledge, must be fulfilled through measuring all over the world in order to build a global net of observations according to the same paradigm, collecting specimen and data, and forming the edifice of modern science. For modern science, forming of this edifice of modern science depend on its territorial expansion, namely, territorial expansion is one of the basic ways in which the modern science grows up. In the period when Zi-Ka-Wei Observatory was founded and made its measurements, the territorial expansion fulfilled through extension of Europe.However, in the process of territorial expansion of modern science, local science circles was not just a passive part. The cooperation from local science circles played an important role which could not be ignored. The availability of modern science in understanding the world and settling some events had formed an important foundation of the cooperation which was an either voluntary or passive process. Thus, when the expansion of Europe ebbed, the production of modern science knowledge was relayed from European scientists to local ones. In this point of view, the cooperation with the local science circles was another way by which modern science fulfilled its territorial expansion, or in other words, another mode of production of the knowledge of modern science.In this disquisitive paper about Zi-Ka-Wei Observatory, the Society of Jesus which was born in the same period as modern science, colonial expansion of Europe, modern China added as a laboratory to the edifice of modern science and Chinese intellectual who tried to save the country through transplanting modern science, all those factors played important roles in the process of the territorial expansion of European modern science. However, there was only one leading role indeed: while all of sides whose interests connected with Zi-Ka-Wei Observatory go through rise and decline, ups and downs, European Modern Science is just the only winner for ever.