Re-examination of the Mozart effect: Effects of music tempo and mode on arousal, mood, and spatial performance

Rauscher, Shaw and Ky (1993) reported that listening to 10 minutes of a Mozart sonata improved performance on standardized tests of spatial abilities. Thompson, Schellenberg, and Husain (2001) demonstrated, however, that the so-called "Mozart effect" is merely an artifact of arousal and mood. In the current investigation, the influence of musical tempo and mode on mood, arousal and spatial abilities were examined. A Mozart sonata (x.448) was performed by a skilled pianist and recorded as a MIDI file. The file was edited to produce four versions that varied in tempo (fast, slow) and mode (major, minor), with all other aspects (e.g., variations in amplitude) held constant. Participants listened to a single version and subsequently completed tests of spatial ability, arousal, mood, and enjoyment. Performance on the spatial task was superior for participants who listened to the fast rather than the slow version of the sonata. Performance was also enhanced for participants who listened to the major rather than the minor version, but only when the piece was played at a slow tempo. Tempo manipulations affected arousal, but not mood, whereas mode manipulations affected mood, but not arousal. Variations in arousal and mood measures paralleled those on the spatial task. The results suggest that the Mozart effect is largely mediated by arousal and mood, which are influenced by tempo and mode, respectively.