Iconographic Research On Rahu And Ketu

The thesis examines the existing images of both Rahu and Ketu and investigates the lengthy and complex process of iconographic transference of Rahu and Ketu from India to China. By combining artistic works and relevant historical documents, the paper also explains the reason why the two deities change in the corresponding cultures, religions and societies. The whole analysis of the images of Rahu and Ketu is divided into five parts:Indian sculptures, Chinese versions of Buddhist scriptures, literature of Dunhuang and Tangut Empire, murals in religious temples, and the block-printed books from both Ming and Qing dynasties. Furthermore, the thesis clarifies the whole complicated process of Rahu’s and Ketu’s changing representations. Starting from their portrayal as "devil" in an Indian myth, then "deities" in Buddhism and Taoism (in China), and finally "ordinary people" in Chinese folk religion, the thesis illustrates a more general tendency of all societies to humanize a deity for our better understanding of and reference to it.The first chapter introduces Rahu’s and Ketu’s origins in India as well as their early images, and analyzes their first characteristics as presented in the Indian myth story "Churning the Milk Sea." Inspecting the icons of Rahu and Ketu in Indian sculptures, the first chapter explains how Rahu and Ketu joined the system of Navagraha worship and what important part Indian astronomy and astrology played in it at that time.With the spread of Rahu and Ketu in China, the relevant literature and illustrations were mainly saved in Chinese versions of Buddhist scriptures. In the second chapter, the thesis first undermines the age and contents of the Mo deng jia jing摩登伽经based on the previous analysis in the first chapter. Next, it organizes the images of Rahu and Ketu in the classical Buddhist scriptures (such as Tai cang tu xiang胎藏图像,Fan tian huo luo jiu yao梵天火罗九曜,Huo luo tu火罗图,Jiu yao mi li九曜秘历)to finally complement them with the relevant texts, and explore the reasons as well as show evidence how the images change while they transfer from India to China.In Song and Liao dynasties and Tangut kingdom, the worship of Flaming Light Buddha(炽盛光佛)and accompanying planetary deities is popular. As the traffic arteries for the spread of Buddhism, Dunhuang district retains many silk paintings and other illustrations of Flaming Light Buddha who can protect people from disasters. These paintings show how Rahu and Ketu enter the worship of planetary deities, how the number of planetary deities grows from seven to nine, and to final eleven. However, due to old age and severe damage of the artistic works, some of the previous studies on the images of Flaming Light Buddha in Hong Tower in Tangut kingdom are not accurate. The third chapter corrects past errors, provides relevant evidence and confirms the identities of the planetary deities. Additionally, this part of the thesis summarizes the usage and function of dharani talismans of Rahu and Ketu found in Dunhuang literature, which proved merging of Taoism and Buddhism at the time in Dunhuang district. Furthermore, the third chapter carefully analyzes a particular painting of a Flaming Light Buddha with other planetary deities in Tangut literature. With the help of Fan han he shi zhang zhong zhu番汉合时掌中珠and other materials, the thesis depicts the painting as a very special masterpiece which portrays the merging cultures of India and China.Rahu and Ketu began to appear in Taoist murals in Yuan dynasty. The fourth chapter shows that the images of Rahu and Ketu in Taoism are similar to those in Buddhism by comparing the mural Chao yuan tu朝元图in Yongle palace from Yuan dynasty to the Buddhist murals Chi sheng guang fo fo hui tu炽盛光佛佛会图in Guangsheng temple. With the blend of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism, the boundaries between Buddhism and Taoism began to disappear. In Ming dynasty, the Buddhist and Taoist deities can be seen in the murals of religious temples together with other folk gods, a phenomenon especially popular in Shanxi and Hebei Provinces. By analyzing and comparing six pieces of temple murals from Ming dynasty, a conclusion can be drawn that although the styles the portrayal of Rahu and Ketu in Taoism and Buddhism are not exactly the same, the depictions of the two deities always exhibit the same main characteristics. The differences in the painting styles show the multiple cultural background of Buddhism and that of Taoism, as well as the regional differences. After Qing dynasty, the images of navagraha in temple murals tend to be more abstract. Compared to other planetary deities, the main characteristics of Rahu and Ketu are no longer as distinct as before.With the development of typography in Ming and Qing dynasties, the images of Rahu and Ketu are printed in various block-printed books (such as printed drawings, divination books, and yearly almanacs) and help us realize how the portrayal of the two deities was changing. By comparing the images of Rahu and Ketu in engravings with different editions of Yu xia ji玉匣记,the fifth chapter shows that Rahu and Ketu become very popular in folk people’s daily life. Their appearance changed immensely: they resemble ordinary people rather than an Indian demon (Rahu) and a comet (Ketu), which reflects a much broader issue of complexity and utilitarianism of human faith.In a nutshell, this thesis examines the long and complex process of evolution of Rahu’s and Ketu’s images:their transference from India to China, their expansion in China, and their alteration throughout centuries. Furthermore, through the example of changing images of Rahu and Ketu the thesis aims to explain a broader and more complex cultural and religious syncretism.