| Peste des petits ruminants(PPR)and foot-and-mouth disease(FMD)is a worldwide prevalent infectious disease of ruminants and a threat to food safety,and the prosperity of humans and animals across Asia,the Middle East,and African regions.The regional epidemiology and associated risk factors of PPR and FMD in the northern borders region of Pakistan adjacent to China,Afghanistan,and Tajikistan are poorly studied.The objectives of this study were to investigate the seroepidemiology of these two diseases in the northern borders of Pakistan and then to investigate the role of the transboundary movement of animals in the regional spread of PPR and FMD and identify the associated risk factors in the region.The 7 selected study districts are located in Pakistan’s northwest and northeast border regions adjacent to China,Afghanistan,and Tajikistan and the study population included cattle,buffalo,sheep,and goats that were unvaccinated.To determine the distribution and identify the associated risk factors of PPR in the region,a total of 1300samples(serum=328;swabs=972)from 150 flocks/herds were compiled from sheep(n=324),goats(n=328),cattle(n=324),and buffaloes(n=324)during 2020-2021 and tested using ELISA for detection of viral antibody in sera or antigen in swabs.An overall apparent prevalence of 38.7%(95% CI=36.1–41.4%)was recorded in the target regions.The highest apparent prevalence of 53.4%(95% CI=45.7–61.2%)was documented in the Gilgit district and the lowest of 25.1%(95% CI=19.2–30.9%)was reported in the Swat district.A questionnaire was designed to collect data about associated risk factors that were put into a univariable logistic regression to decrease the non-essential assumed risk dynamics with a P-value of 0.25.Arc GIS,10.8.1 was used to design hotspot maps.Some of the risk factors significantly different(P <0.05)in the multivariable logistic regression were flock/herd size,farming methods,nomadic animal movement,and outbreaks of PPR.The odds of large-sized flocks/herds were 1.6(OR=1.681;95% CI=0.251–11.267%)times more likely to be positive than small-sized ones.The odds of transhumance and nomadic systems were 0.59(OR=0.595;95% CI=0.306–1.158%)and 0.51(OR=0.519;0.272–0.900%)times more probably to be positive as compared to sedentary and mixed farming systems,respectively.The odds of nomadic animal movement in the area were 0.5(OR=0.552;0.389–0.784%)times more likely to be positive as compared to areas where no nomadic movement was observed.In addition,the odds of an outbreak of PPR in the area was0.257(OR=0.257;0.182–0.364%)times more probably to be positive as compared to areas where no outbreak of PPR was observed.To determine the distribution and identify the associated risk factors of FMD in the regions,a total of 385 serum samples were collected from 75 flocks/herds in 7 districts including sheep(n=97),goats(n=142),cattle(n=60),and buffaloes(n=86)and tested using an FMDV 3ABC-Mab-b ELISA.An overall apparent seroprevalence of 67.0%(95% CI=64.0–70.9%)was recorded in the target region.The highest seroprevalence of 81.1%(95% CI=72.4–89.4%)was recorded in the Swat district followed by 76.6%(95% CI=65.9–87.3%)in Mohmand Agency,72.7%(95% CI=59.5–85.8%)in Gilgit,65.6%(95% CI=49.7–79.0%)in Shangla district,63.4%(95% CI=48.6–78.1)in Bajaur Agency,46.6%(95% CI=32.0–61.2%)in Chitral,and lowest46.5(95% CI=31.6–61.4%)in Khyber Agency.From the various risk factors analyzed,it was found that age,sex,species of animal,seasons,flock/herd size,farming methods,outbreak location,and nomadic animal’s movement in search of pasture and water were significantly associated with the seroprevalence of FMD(P<0.05).The study provided regional epidemiology,and associated risk factors of PPRV and FMD which could help identify when,how,and where intensive surveillance and vaccination along with biosecurity measures need to be implemented for the prevention and control of the disease from the research zones and adjacent neighbor countries in consonance with the PPR and FMD Global Control Strategy. |
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