Investigating skilled and less-skilled golfers' psychological preparation strategies: The use of a think-aloud cognitive process-tracing measure

The study of psychological skill use in sport is a key area of research in sport psychology. Skilled athletes have been shown to use a variety of psychological skills in practice and competition to regulate their psychological states (Taylor, Gould, & Rolo, 2008; White & Hardy, 1998). However, the methods used to investigate psychological skill use have been questioned (Eccles, 2012). In particular, some studies have employed experimental procedures that constrain researchers' ability to elicit valid verbal reports of athletes' cognitive processes. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the use of psychological skills by golfers, as they prepared to putt, using a think-aloud cognitive process-tracing measure. Specifically, golfers' use of psychological skills during a particular episode (i.e., golf putting task), as indicated by think-aloud reports, was compared with their reported use of psychological skills in general, as measured by a traditional questionnaire instrument.;Less-skilled (n = 26) and skilled golfers (n = 26) performed short- and long-distance golf putts under low- and high-stress conditions. On selected trials, participants verbalized their thoughts concurrent with task performance. For each putt, putt accuracy and the time taken to putt were measured. Also, for each putt, the concurrent think-aloud reports were transcribed, and statements indicative of psychological skill use were identified and tabulated.;Results indicated a positive and moderate correlation between a traditional questionnaire measure of performers' general use of psychological skills (TOPS-2) and psychological skill use during actual task performance, as measured by think-aloud reports. Participants used psychological skills moderately during their practice and competition sessions, as measured by TOPS-2 and during their preparation to putt, as measured by think-aloud reports. Regardless of the measure used, psychological skill use did not differ significantly between the skill groups. As expected, both groups perceived the long-distance putts as more difficult than short-distance putts, and experienced more anxiety in the high-stress condition than the low-stress condition. However, participants in both groups did not increase their use of psychological skills with the increase in task difficulty or anxiety, as indicated by think-aloud reports. Psychological skill use after unsuccessful and successful putts was also analyzed; prior putt performance had no significant effect on psychological skill use, as measured by think-aloud reports.;Despite the concerns that general measures of psychological skill, such as the TOPS-2, might not capture the actual thoughts being experienced by athletes (instead tapping a priori, implicit causal theories), the moderate correlation found here suggests some validity for the TOPS-2. Overall, this study represents a step toward better understanding and measurement of psychological skill use in athletes.