| During the twentieth century, many industrialized countries experienced both an increase in meat consumption and the emergence of organizations dedicated to animal protection. Although theories of modernization and world systems can explain the increase in meat consumption that often accompanies economic expansion, they do not explain why animal rights groups and critiques of meat consumption develop primarily in wealthy countries. Since these groups and critiques are not bound strictly by national borders and national culture, it is appropriate to look at elements of world culture and the literature regarding world culture for possible answers.;Based on analyses of (1) the changing status of non-human animals, (2) increased meat consumption, (3) the role of the nation-state in animal protection, and (4) the emergence of non-governmental organizations dedicated to animal advocacy and protection, this study asserts that both animal protection and increased meat consumption occur with the expansion of world culture and the ideology of progress. This world culture defines animal protection, including the alleviation of pain and suffering, as a necessary value and goal of the progressive, ideal nation-state and its citizens. This same world culture has defined meat consumption, perceived as nutritionally necessary and indicative of socio-economic development, as a definitive characteristic of the progressive, ideal nation-state.;Clearly promoted and institutionalized during the twentieth century, both animal protection and meat consumption were ideologically defined much earlier, as characteristics of the 'progressive' society. Although developed initially in transnational epistemic communities as early as the eighteenth century, this ideology of progress is now an essential element of a world culture that prompts individual and corporate actors to react accordingly.;This study contributes to the scholarship on international NGOs, world society, animal protection and rights, social movements, and resource management. It also provides much needed attention to patterns of food production, distribution, and consumption, all of which are becoming increasingly critical issues. |
