| Ghost images are caused by the inter-reflections of light from optical surfaces that have transmittances less than unity. Ghosts can reduce contrast, provide misleading information, and if severe can veil parts of the nominal image. This dissertation develops several methodologies to simulate ghost effects arising from an even number of light reflections between the surfaces of multi-element lens systems. We present an algorithm to generate the ghost layout that is generated by two, four and up to N (even) reflections. For each possible ghost layout, paraxial ray tracing is performed to calculate the locations of the Gaussian cardinal points, the locations and diameters of the ghost entrance and exit pupils, the locations and diameters of the ghost entrance and exit windows, and the ghost chief and marginal ray heights and angles at each surface in the ghost layout. The paraxial ray trace data is used to estimate the fourth order ghost aberration coefficients. Petzval, tangential, and sagittal ghost image surfaces are introduced. Potential ghosts are formed at the intersection points between the ghost image surfaces and the Gaussian nominal image plane. Paraxial radiometric methodology is developed to estimate the ghost irradiance point spread function at the nominal image plane. Contrast reduction by ghosts can cause a reduction in the depth of field, and a simulation model and experimental technique that can be used to measure the depth of field is presented. Finally, ghost simulation examples are provided and discussed. |
