| Paktong is the earliest and most widely used cupro-nickel alloy in the world, but also it’s an important creative invention in the history of science and technology in ancient China.According to an ancient Chinese literature called Chronicles of Huayang, China can be traced back to the late Eastern Jin Dynasty had invented Paktong; Large scale production of Paktong was conducted in Ming and Qing Dynasties, which became one of the most widely used metal materials in these periods; it began to transmit into Europe in the17th century, and then it was regarded as a treasure for most of countries, competing to imitate it, so as to promote the applications of cupro-nickel alloy in Europe, having a significant impact on the rise of the nickel metal industry in Europe.First and foremost, starting from the extant literature, a literature review of Paktong is done on the history of Chinese and foreign historical literature and geological surveys, and the research and academic procedure of Paktong is also reviewed, so it’s found out that the previous research could be summarized in five areas as follows:the study of the original period for ancient Paktong; the research on the provenance of Paktong in ancient China; scientific analysis on smelting relics and the extant Paktong artifacts; the study of Paktong’s transmission into Europe; the discovery and research on Bactrian cupro-nickel coins.Furthermore, some of the topics could be still found further expansion and conducted in-depth research, especially Paktong’s production and related issues on transmitting Paktong into Europe.Chapter Three is about the domestic literature research, which explores the literature in depth for several new information related to Paktong, particularly with regard to the previous studies rarely mentioned.In the provenance of Paktong in Yunnan and Sichuan, inscriptions, genealogy and other research materials were found, among which were newly discovered text data associated with the manufacturers. Meanwhile, in the historical documents and archives of the geological surveys, information about Paktong manufacturing technologies and smelting minerals were found in both areas. Chapter Four is about the investigation and research on the provenance of Paktong and its historical relics, focusing on the situation in the field survey of Yunnan and Sichuan for ancient Paktong manufacturing sites and historic relics. Laboratory analyses were done on smelting relics and historical Paktong artifacts, which are additionally new information about the technology.Chapter Five and Chapter Six are the research and scientific work for the European German Silver and its relics.Archives and documentations of the western countries from18th to19th centuries were fully used, the purpose of which is to conduct new research and exploration on Paktong’s transmission into Europe and its imitation process.Chapter Seven is the comprehensive discussion and analysis on the combination of the Chinese and foreign research materials and experimental results and analysis on provenance of Paktong, manufacturer, manufacturing technology, the rise of German Silver and Paktong in the late Qing Dynasty, which reveal the original value of this metallic invention and its important role in domestic and foreign scientific and technological exchanges, so as the impact on the rise of European Modern nickel metal industry.Finally, the conclusions are drawn. The flourishing period for Paktong’s production, development and transmission into Europe was from18th to19th centuries, but manufacturing technology had no major breakthrough until its transmission into the West and the stimulation of the industrial revolution, then it began to be able to take changes; After years of experiments and research of European scientists, German Silver was produced, making it a successful imitation of Paktong, whose technology and product not only were transmitted back to China, but also affected Paktong production and its fate in the Late Qing China. |
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