Distribution, Status And Monitoring Strategies Of The Leopard Panthera Pardus In China

The leopard Panthera pardus has the widest distribution of any wild felid species, although in Asia it has declined dramatically. Historically, leopards were found throughout most of China, with the exception of the arid Gobi desert and mountainous western regions at elevations above 4,000 m. However, recent surveys have indicated that leopards have disappeared from large areas and may not be as common as previously believed.This thesis investigates the conservation biology of the leopard in China at multiple geographical scales. To assess the current distribution and status of the leopard, heterogeneous sources (i.e., international and Chinese scientific literature, news articles, unpublished data) were used to derive valuable presence records countrywide. The findings indicate that the species in China has declined dramatically, with confirmation of presence at only 44 sites in 11 out of 34 provinces. It is likely that leopard populations are small (< 50 individuals) and fragmented, occurring mainly in isolated nature reserves, which can be subject to high risk of local extinctions. It is important to note that the records available for leopards in China were mostly collected as a consequence of studies focused on other flagship species, while projects and research focused directly on leopards are few. For this reason current research on leopards fails to include the width of habitats and ecosystems where they do not overlap with these flagship species, but persist due to their generalist nature. These often represent areas closer to human disturbance, where other species have already gone locally extinct.One of such areas is Shanxi province, in Northern China, where the endemic north Chinese leopard(P.p. japonensis) occurs. A distribution model was built to predict the environmental conditions and locations suitable for the species. Presence data was derived from unsystematic and opportunistic camera trapping conducted across the province between 2008 and 2013. Six uncorrelated variables at 1 km2 grid resolution were used, representing topographical, vegetation, and anthropogenic features. A Maxent model highlighted the strong influence of forest cover (90% contribution) and the lesser effect of roads and population density (3.3% and 2.6% respectively). Larger areas of suitable habitat were distributed in southern Shanxi and comprised two national nature reserves.The largest amongst the reserves, Lishan National Nature Reserve, was selected to carry out a population density estimate. Camera traps (n= 139) were deployed systematically (4 km2 grids with two cameras to capture both flanks) to cover the entire nature reserve (252 km2). A total of 5 individuals were identified. Mark-recapture (MARK) and spatially explicit mark-recapture (SPACECAP) models give similar results (0.7 and 0.6 ± 0.3 leopards/100 km2 respectively). This density estimate is comparable with the critically endangered Amur leopard (P. p. orientalis) in Northeast China (0.6 to 3.5 leopards/100 km2) and is amongst the lowest recorded for leopards in the world.The feasibility of sign surveys to monitor populations was investigated as an alternative or a complement to camera trapping, but detection rates were low (34 scats,3 footprints,5 scrapes,2 hair over 153.4 km). Species identification of scats from field surveys was not confirmed until DNA analysis was performed. Only 14% of purportedly leopard scats were correctly identified in the field, the majority being canid. In comparison, scat identification for snow leopard(Panthera uncia) in Xinjiang was examined, with similar results. More than half the scats identified in the field as snow leopard actually belonging to fox (Vulpes vulpes). Due to the high rate of misidentification, research and monitoring programs that rely upon scat samples should therefore employ molecular scatology techniques. Nevertheless, the low encounter rates for signs (0.1 sign/km) suggest this type of survey would not be viable unless survey effort (i.e. longer transects) and/or detection (i.e. snow cover) is increased.The knowledge gap for leopards in China is considerable and this lack of information can undermine the effectiveness of conservation efforts. The systematic surveys conducted here provide insights for the study of elusive leopards even at these very low densities. The sign surveys did not provide a sufficient sample size for analysis and requires molecular scatology techniques to prevent misidentification. Monitoring programs along with management practices must be optimized, implemented and coordinated at all scales (national, provincial and local protected areas) to ensure that these small and fragmented populations are viable in the long-term.