The Governors General And Governors And Social Reforms In Late Qing Dynasty

The late Qing dynasty was a transitional period in which Chinese society was transformed from the traditional to the modern. Confronted with the social changes that had never happened and the enemies that had never been encountered in the past thousand years, the governors general and governors who lived in the time of great transformation and who had great political power became an important force to promote the modernization of the late Qing society.Before the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, in order to keep a long-termed control of the dynasty, a few far-sighted governors general and governors who lived in the convergence where the East met the West adopted the western learning greatly and advocated the westernization movement positively. After the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, when faced with increasingly serious national and dynastic crisis, more and more governors general and governors abandoned the psychology of emptiness and egotism, cleared off the deep-rooted mentality of self-confinement and explored the western culture ranging from the advanced warship and guns, physical science to the western learning progressively. More importantly, the governors general and governors who advocated the westernization movement continued and deepened the concrete measures adopted by Westernization Movement, thus positively promoting the modern transition of traditional military, economy, education through their reforming documents and practices.Military reform was an important policy adopted by Qing court after Sino-Japanese War in order to become prosperous and strong. Most of the governors general and governors had been aware that Luying troops could hardly persist and wanted to reduce them moderately. Meanwhile, under the premise of maintaining the existing military system, they wanted to adopt western-style method to train military talents, and they put the measures raised by several governors general during westernization Movement into practice. That was to learn the weapon technique of the west in order to improve military equipments and found the military industries and schools. A few governors general and governors, such as Zhang Zhidong, promoted the modern transition of traditional military through a series of practices that included the introduction of western military system, strategy, tactics, and military culture.Building railway and exploiting mines was also an important policy to make Qing court rich and strong during that period. On the issue of building railway, most governors general and governors had fully realized its emergency and necessity. They discussed the specific problems such as the resources of funds and the sections planned to be built. Zhang Zhidong and Liu Kunyi also positively proposed to set up Railway Ministry and appoint minister to manage, program and monitor the railway construction. On the issue of exploiting mine, governors general and governors who advocated the westernization movement positively adopted the assumption of Qing dynasty, and put forward that the old-fashioned developmental mode of mining industry should be reformed on the basis of adopting the western machines and technologies Meanwhile, schools of mining affairs should be set up to foster the mining talents. Thus, appealed by Qing government's policy of compensating for and benefiting the industry and commerce, a lot of governors general and governors promoted the economic advancement through the development of mining industry, transportation and commerce.Setting up schools and cultivating qualified talents were an important guarantee for the prosperity of nation. The methods of personnel training which the governors general and governors have taken were either to adjust the teaching contents of old academy or to establish new school and adopt the western curriculum and teaching methods. More importantly, Zhang Zhidong, Chen Baozhen, Hu Pinzhi, Liao Shoufeng and Huang Huaisen promoted and deepened the reform of imperial examination system by setting the contents and forms of the examination. Therefore, the governors general and governors promoted the modern transition of traditional education through a series of practices that included altering academies, founding schools, and reforming the imperial examination system.As complex, changeable political figures, some of the governors general and governors had hindered the reform development. A few of them were conservative. Li Bingheng and Tan Zhonglin were typical representatives. They once said that it was not necessary to reform and learn from the west in order to be prosperous, and what they needed to do stick to the convention and tradition. They opposed the construction of the railroads and the mining industry, refused to establish new school and reform the imperial examination system, and then shackled the reform. Some others, such as Fu Run, De Shou, De Xin, who lack foreign affairs experience, catered to the reform development in public but opposed to it in private. They also delayed the development of the reform measures. More importantly, when the reform touched the personal political powers and the economic interests, the governors general and governors on one hand showed loyalty to the Qing court and carried out the reform positively. On the other hand, they seized the opportunity to get more political capitals and the economic interests, thus expanding their own governance, and strengthening their power gradually.The Qing court's westernization movement from 1895 to 1898 had been impelled by many political powers among them, the governors general and governors were an indispensable part. Except for a few who stubbornly and openly revisited western learning, more than half of them not only became the advisers and supporters, but also the practitioners in westernization movement, and thus having deep influence the social changes of the late Qing dynasty.