The Spanish Franciscan Mission In The Late Ming And Early Qing Periods Of China (1579-1732)

This dissertation aims at providing a detailed study of the Franciscan Order's mission in late Ming and early Qing China, which consisted mainly of Spanish missionaries. The position of the Franciscan Order in the history of the Catholic Church in China has not received adequate attention in Chinese academia, despite the fact that it was the second largest Catholic body to enter China following the Jesuit Order. At the dawn of the 21st century, Chinese scholars on the mainland were the first to conduct serious research on the Franciscan mission in China. Their research, nevertheless, is constrained by the scarcity of historical data. Through this research, the author intends to delineate the Franciscan mission's routes, methods, strategies, target groups and scope of activity in China, as well as its stance on the "Chinese rites controversy", and its impact on the Catholic mission in China at large.The years 1579-1732 was an important era for the Franciscan Order's mission in China, a chronological division of which provides the framework for this study: 1. The Period from 1579 to 1632. In this period the Franciscan Order contemplated its mission in China and made repeated attempts to enter China, but these early attempts failed and were consequently abandoned. 2. The Period from 1633 to 1670. During this period, the Franciscan Order eventually entered China and established its permanent missionary station in the province of Shandong. Due to their different methods and strategies, the Franciscan Order and the Jesuit Order entered into a bitter debate over the so-called "Chinese Rites Controversy", with Antonio Santa Maria Caballero in the forefront, which ensued and lasted for a century. 3. The Period from 1671 to 1692. This period witnessed rapid growth of the Franciscan mission in China, with the Shandong apostolic vicariate restored and new parishes established in Guangdong, Fujian and Jiangxi, thus establishing the general pattern of distribution of the Franciscan mission in China. 4. The Period from 1693 to 1722. It was a period marked by the polemic between Emperor Kangxi and the Pope over the Chinese rites. During the debate, the Franciscans approximated their position to that of the Jesuits, and followed suit with the Jesuits in acquiescing to the imperial edict to require "official permits" to continue their mission in China. 5. The Period from 1723 to 1732. It was a period in which the practice of Catholicism was prohibited throughout China by Emperor Yongzheng. With Emperor Kangxi's death in 1722 and Yongzheng's assumption of the throne, a nationwide campaign to prohibit the practice of theChristian religion was launched. The Franciscan Order, with Canton as its headquarters, became an asylum for missionaries expelled from other parts of China. Notwithstanding the great risk involved, the Franciscans continued their mission in Canton, and some even slipped into Fujian, Jiangxi and Shandong to spread their faith. In 1732 (the tenth year of the reign of Emperor Yongzheng), all missionaries in Canton were expelled to Macao and thus the Franciscan missionaries were forced to leave China. With great resolve, some Franciscan missionaries remained in Macao to carry on their cause.Although the Jesuit Order was the principal body of the Christian mission in China in the late Ming and early Qing periods, the Franciscan Order was a force which could not be ignored. The activities of the Franciscans marked an era of pluralism in the Catholic mission in China. This pluralism is reflected not only in the proliferation of missionary bodies in China, but also in the different methods, strategies and target groups of the Franciscans, the Jesuits, and others. All in all, this pluralism contributed to the continuous development of the Catholic mission in China.