Characteristics of ungulate behavior and mortality associated with wire fences

I studied the characteristics of fence mortality in pronghorn ( Antilocapra americana), mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), and elk (Cervus elaphus) along roads in Colorado and Utah from June 2004 to June 2005. I defined a direct-fence mortality as a carcass caught directly in a fence. I estimated an average annual direct mortality occurrence of 0.25 mortalities/km (all 3 species included). Getting caught between the top 2 wires was the leading cause of death for fence mortalities. Mule deer suffered higher fence-mortality rates than elk or pronghorn because they interacted with fences more frequently (P < 0.001). Juveniles were 8 times more likely to die in fences than adults. Woven-wire fence types were more lethal to ungulates (especially juveniles) than other fence types (P < 0.001). There was a direct relationship between the frequency of fence-mortalities and ungulate abundance (P < 0.001).