MANDARINS IN AMERICA: THE EARLY CHINESE MINISTERS TO THE UNITED STATES, 1878-1907

Based partly on the historical documents kept by the former embassy of Taiwan in Washington, D.C., and on Chinese newspapers published in the United States, this study examines the steps leading to the appointment of the first Chinese minister and associate minister to the United States in December 1875, the background of the Chinese ministers stationed in Washington from 1878 to 1907, the attempts of these ministers to protect and control the Chinese immigrants in the United States, and other activities they engaged in during their terms of office.; A principal reason for the sending of ministers to the United States by the late Ch'ing government was to protect and control the Chinese immigrants there. Since most of the latter came from the province of Kwangtung, the Ch'ing government tried to appoint natives of Kwangtung to the diplomatic post in Washington as it believed that ministers originating from Kwangtung could understand best the wishes of their fellow provincials in the United States. All but two of the ministers sent to the United States from 1878 to 1907 hailed from Kwangtung. The ministers originating from Kwangtung exercised more initiative in formulating and implementing policy for the protection of the Chinese immigrants and in devising measures to retain the loyalty of the latter to the Ch'ing regime than the two ministers who were not natives of Kwangtung.; All the Chinese ministers, irrespective of their native origins, tried their best in carrying out a variety of other duties. They were sometimes asked by the foreign office in Peking to present China's demands to the American government. They were occasionally requested by the Chinese provincial officials to negotiate with the American government over issues arising from the activities of Americans in the Chinese provinces. They rendered assistance to Chinese officials visiting the United States and supervised Chinese students studying in America. Upon the request of the Ch'ing government, they purchased American goods and supplied specific information on American conditions. Three of the ministers even kept diaries of their daily activities in the United States.