A cross-cultural study of Total Quality Management: A metaphorical communication model for the exchange of the continuous improvement concepts between the United States and Japan

Cross-cultural leaders must increase their competencies in communicating ideas from one cultural context to another. One of the most effective means of such communication is the use of metaphors. These help people understand meanings of new experiences when they use a coherent gestalt from one domain of experience to structure experience in another. One of the significant systems of metaphors used by today's business organizations is that of Total Quality Management (TQM). TQM concepts were originated by Americans, nourished and developed in Japan, and reintroduced and adapted by American businesses. By drawing on the extensive TQM literature of both Japan and the United States, sets of metaphors for continuous improvement (CI) are developed which show the differences and similarities in mindsets that confront those attempting to transplant the TQM experiences of one country into a different one. A Spiral Development Model is proposed to assist in the process of introducing TQM elements to a new business culture.