Hearts and minds: Black women scientists in the United States, 1900 to 1960

I have explored the scope of Black American women's work in the sciences and related fields by examining the experiences of sixty-six women who obtained degrees in the sciences between 1900 and 1960, including: fifty-two Ph.D's. and nine M.D's., who represent nearly the entire cohort who obtained advanced degrees in the sciences during the period under study; and five women who did not advance beyond the baccalaureate level but performed scientific work. I utilized interviews, historical documents and secondary sources to categorize the women in terms of their early backgrounds; undergraduate training; mentor relationships; financial support; discipline choice; and caliber of scientific work. The data show the women performed significant work in the sciences, and some made substantial contributions. Since often the women saw problems and solutions differently than their white male predecessors, they brought diversity to the scientific enterprise. Despite being Black and female, however, a significant number engaged in research that was not overtly powered by Black interests nor female sensibilities. Racism was a constant obstacle, but gender discrimination increased with the level of training. The vast majority attended segregated schools, completed their undergraduate educations at historically Black colleges (HBCUs) and their advanced degrees at majority white institutions. The women who achieved the doctorate before 1950 were particularly isolated; after the 1950s, the isolation lessened among the women at HBCUs, but continued among the women who obtained positions at majority white institutions in the 1960s. Institutionally, the U.S. scientific establishment maintained the status quo--white and male; support was individual and haphazard and did not reflect the scientific ideal of rewarding ability or acknowledging potential from non-traditional quarters; even as their scientific contributions grew, there was little or no movement within the establishment to increase minority opportunities before the 1970s.