A comparative historical analysis of higher education development in Macau and Hong Kong: State intervention, Portuguese and British imperialism and colonialism (China)

How did colonial states intervene higher education development and use it as a means for imperialism and colonialism as evidenced by Macau and Hong Kong? This study argues that Hong Kong was treated as one of Britain's pawns in its intercourse with China. Similarly, Macau is the bridgehead for disseminating Portuguese culture to China. Higher education development in these two colonies was intervened by the colonial governments, which in turn was controlled by and served the interests of their suzerains, Britain and Portugal. Eight comparable cases were used and a conceptual framework employing the concepts of imperialism, colonialism and state intervention was created to offer a reason-giving explanation for the relationship among the colonial states, the suzerains and higher education policy. Data collection and analysis relied mainly on review of documentation and archival records, and in-depth interviews. The researcher interviewed 72 state officials and social elite in Macau and Hong Kong, who have involved in policy-making and implementation of higher education.; In 1594, the Jesuits founded the St. Paul's University College in Macau for training of missionaries for China. It closed down in 1726. From 1726 to 1980, there was no university education in the colony although social demands was high. In 1981, three Hong Kong businessmen set up the University of East Asia, which was purchased by the Macau Government after the signing of the Sino-Portuguese Joint Declaration in 1987. During the state power transitional period (1988–1999), higher education expanded rapidly. The findings show that the Portuguese made great efforts in building up a higher education system to maintain Macanese interests, to perpetuate national pride, and to assure national interests.; Hongkong University was established to foster trade with China. The colonial government resisted demands for higher education in order to control social mobility. Even the economy grew remarkably before 1984, only 2 percent of the age-cohorts had access to higher education. Just before Hong Kong's reversion to China, the colonial government initiated expansion in higher education by building a new university, transforming private college to public-funded university, and shortening the degree program of the Chinese University from 4-year to 3-year, in order to maintain a British academic model in Hong Kong. By comparison, higher education policy in Hong Kong and Macau changed according to different political and social contexts. These colonial states have established different but partially effective state apparatus to intervene higher education system in order to reinforce colonial rule and to pursue their imperial purposes.; After reversion to China, both the SAR governments of Macau and Hong Kong may reform higher education system to meet political and economic needs in the 21st century. Colonial heritage should not be ignored. In fact one of the hot issues in education reform in Hong Kong is the attempt of the seven universities to shift the first degree structure from 3-year to 4-year. The historical facts and analysis on structure change described in this study could provide a valuable reference for new policy formation. This study will be a significant contribution to the general understanding of the political and social dynamics of state-controlled education systems not just in these two colonies but throughout the world.