| Lifting surface design is affected by many considerations; drag, weight, and high-lift are particularly important. These effects place different and often opposite requirements on wing shape, complicating the selection of a best configuration. To assist this selection, a preliminary design method using nonlinear optimization has been developed. An isolated lifting surface design problem is formulated from aircraft mission parameters, typically to calculate the platform and twist minimizing cruise drag or maximizing range, subject to constraints such as structural weight and maximum section lift. Solving this with optimization requires very fast analyses that are capable of capturing the effects of detailed changes in wing shape. This motivated significant improvements that were made to structural calculations and maximum-lift prediction methods for preliminary design. A method was developed to evaluate wing weight and stiffness considering bending and buckling strength. A critical section method was modified to enable the prediction of flaps-down maximum lift, correcting for induced camber near the flap edge. The lifting surface optimization method performs platform design while accounting for many effects: static aeroelasticity, weight evaluated from multiple structural design conditions, induced drag, profile drag, compressibility drag, maximum lift, static stability, and control power constraints. The method was used to explore the influence of these effects on optimal wings, demonstrating how strongly lifting surface design is influenced by maximum-lift constraints. The method was also applied to studies of wing tip shape and optimal wing-tail configurations. In many cases, the optimizer exploits physical effects, creating design features that are easy to interpret in hindsight but difficult to predict in advance. In creating these designs, the method has demonstrated that optimization can be a valuable tool for lifting surface design. |
