Literary courage: Language, land and the nation in the works of Malik al-Shu'ara Bahar

This paper is a study of the prose and poetry of the Iranian author and political activist Muhammad Taqi Bahar (1886-1951) with the aim of shedding light on the part he played in shaping nationalist thought in early twentieth century Iran. His model of Iranian linguistic and literary history was based on the assumption of a purely Persian body of literature which was subsequently corrupted by invading foreign armies. Despite its flaws, Bahar's method remains influential even today.;As a poet witnessing radical changes in the society around him, Bahar also experimented with modern modes of expression. He expressed his frustration and bewilderment with his failure to lead Iran into political and social modernity in a series of anonymous articles which reveal the poet's view of his relationship to the modern conception of the Iranian nation.;Bahar's use of the nation as a poetic image mirrored the development of the concept as perceived by Iranian public at large and was shaped by traditional poetic forms. In his earliest works, the imagery adheres to classical norms of ruler and kingdom but is gradually altered to accommodate modern ideals of government. Natural imagery also played a large role in Bahar's nationalist ideals and he used the Iranian landscape to create a link between icons of the nation's ancient history and the contemporary reality.