Natural history, population decline and mitochondrial genetics of cathartids (Aves: Ciconiiformes) with special focus on the Andean condor (Vultur gryphus)

The Andean condor (Vultur gryphus) is the world's largest flying avian species. Unfortunately, as is the case for many large-bodied animals, the Andean condor is now endangered from persecution and habitat destruction (listed as CITES I, the highest level of endangerment considered by international trade committees, 1975). I used two approaches to examine decline patterns and biogeography in condors, (1) an analysis of fossil, mammal, and land patterns that may have influenced past condor distribution and current decline patterns, and (2) a genetic study in which I compared mitochondrial control-region sequences of Andean condors in an effort to elucidate population structure and biogeographic patterns relevant to their management and conservation. From the analysis of biogeographic patterns within the range of the condor, I uncovered evidence that Andean condors were always relatively scarce in the northern Andes compared to more southern latitudes, and therefore, current decline severity in the north is a reflection of both natural and human patterns. From the genetic analysis of 38 Andean condors from throughout the species' range, I found that Domains II and III of the mitochondrial control-region, which were selected for study based on their generally rapid evolution in most other avian species and accessibility from both modern and museum specimens, yielded only 2 variable nucleotide sites. Follow-up analysis of mitochondrial variability in other New World vultures (Black vultures, Turkey vultures and in a small number of California condors) demonstrated the same pattern of low population-level variability and lack of geographic structure. Further, apparent systemic heteroplasmy in the control-region of Andean condors, and likely the other New World vultures studied, suggests that interpretation of genetic data based on mitochondrial markers may be difficult until more is known about their underlying genetic and life history phenomena.