The effects of student-, classroom-, and school-level variables on reading and behavioral outcomes of at-risk kindergarten students

A large body of research has documented that classroom-level variables have a significant impact on student outcomes. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effects of student-, teacher-, and classroom-level variables on the reading and behavioral outcomes of at-risk kindergarten students. The study sample was drawn from participants in a national response-to-intervention implementation study. Hierarchical linear modeling was used to examine the effects of (a) student characteristics, (b) teacher characteristics, (c) classroom context variables, (d) literacy instructional practices, and (e) behavior management techniques on several student outcomes. Results indicated that student-level factors were the strongest and most consistent predictors of student outcomes. After controlling for student factors, classroom- and school-level variables were relatively poor predictors. Implications for research and practice are discussed.