Gender and sexuality in Dutch, British, and US political debates on multiculturalism, Islam, and Muslims between 1999 and 2006

This dissertation explores how Dutch, British, and US political parties used gender and sexuality in discussions about Muslims, Islam, and cultural diversity in party brochures, pamphlets, and platforms between 1999 and 2006. Differences in parties' use of gender and sexuality can be explained by looking at the way in which they constructed national identity and their attitude towards cultural diversity. In the Netherlands, sexuality (particularly LGBT rights) and gender (women's equality) were used to emphasize the importance of inburgering (integration) of Muslims. Both were considered part of Dutch norms and values---the 'intolerance of intolerance'---and, through this inclusion, the Dutch national identity. British and US parties excluded gender and, especially, sexuality from their construction of national identity. They also seldom engaged in discussions about Islam and Muslims. In the few instances that they did, only a handful of parties linked these discussions to sexuality or gender. Furthermore, I examine how gender and sexuality contributed to the racialization of Muslims and Islam in the Netherlands. Political parties portrayed Muslims as a homogenous racial group whose religious beliefs and cultural practices were incompatible with those prevalent in mainstream society. It is through discussions about the social presence of Muslims and Islam that gender and sexuality played important roles in their racialization. This dissertation adds to the body of work in political sociology, which lacks a focus on gender and sexuality. Both, however, play important roles in politics, the establishment of political institutions, multiculturalism, and the construction of nationalism. It also contributes to the sociology of race. Research on race misses concrete discussions of the way in which it intersects with religion, nationalism, gender, and sexuality.