Gray Wolves Spatial-Temporal Adaptations In The Dauria Ecoregion,Russia

Wolf-livestock conflict represents a major wildlife management issue in Asia,where wolf populations overlap extensively with livestock husbandry.In the Russian part of Dauria ecoregion,locating in the south of Zabaikalsky Krai,Russia,this is especially actual,as wolves are the most widely distributed large carnivore and the rural human population relies primarily on livestock for subsistence.In the buffer zone of the Daursky State Nature Biosphere Reserve and the Valley of Dzeren Nature Refuge human-wolf conflict is a problem,where many wolves range and farms with uncontrolled livestock grazing occur.The objective of this research was to investigate wolf-livestock conflicts in the Russian part of the Dauria ecoregion,basing on the Daursky Nature Biosphere Reserve.In particular,to reveal the main factors causing livestock depredations by wolves and spatial-temporal adaptations by wolves to human presence and activity as a database for further development and implementation of conflicts management and conservation measures.We used a Global Positioning System(GPS)dataset,consisting of 97964 locations(mean 3880.7±733.6,SE)and 436878 activity readings(mean 21849±3992.9,SE)collected from 20 wolves(7 females and 13 males)and data on depredation events,human’s attitudes,obtaining from annual interviewing of pastoralists in the Daursky State Nature Biosphere Reserve and surroundings.We gained following results.The frequency of wolf visits to pastoralist camps,settlements，and their pastures(≤2000 m far from a camp and settlement)was low(less than 0.09%of the entire time of tracking).Wolves were not traveling in or near camps,settlements,and pastures with the intent of predating livestock and randomly passed through it.as there was no statistical difference(x2=0.066.df=8,P>0.05)between the frequency of distances between locations and camps based on the observed movements and random wolf movements;as well as for settlements visitation rate(x2=0.020,df=8,P>0.05).Settlements,camps,and settlement’ pastures within/around the Daursky Reserve wolves’ territories were visited less than those located out of protected areas.Wolves visited camps with the larger sheltered cover area around than camps with the smaller cover area.This result also corresponds to camps with and without wolf depredations on livestock.We found wolves killed livestock in camps outlying.Wolves still avoided human buildings and visited camps and settlements in 100%of cases at night.Pastures were also visited more often at night than day.85%cases of wolves visiting camps pastures during daylight time were in the cold season.There were no differences among the seasons in the visitation rates into camps(H=3.218,df=2,P=0.200,n=4)and settlements(H=0.746,df=2,P=0.689.n=6),but there was a significant difference in wolves visitation rates into pastures around camps(H=17.001,df=2.P=0.000;n=10)and settlements(H=6.113,df=2,P=0.047;n=8).Pastures of camps were visited more often during the warm season,pastures of settlementsduring the breeding season.Wolves were motivated to visit camp pastures by:a high abundance of the Mongolian gazelle in agricultural lands(start 500 m far from camps)during spring and summer:dumping livestock carcasses near camps and settlements;the food demands of rapidly growing pups during the warm season;and wolves and dogs’ interactions.The increased frequency of visits to settlements surrounding area was interpreted as a complementary response adopted by wolves to exploit the available food sources,i.e.,rubbish in dumpsites during dispersing in spring.In general,pastures of settlements were visited more often during the breeding season at a seasonal peak of dispersing in spring.From 2015 to 2020 20 GPS collared wolves were active 45%(± 0.02 SE)of the day and traveled 1.31 km/h(± 0.06 SE)on average.All wolves showed crepuscular movement peaks.The mean duration of activity period was 7.9 h(± 2.2 SE);and duration of inactivity period was 11.8 h(± 5.8 SE).Traveled distance significantly increased when wolves made extraterritorial forays from their home range to neighboring packs’ territories.The highest activity index corresponds to long-distance dispersing wolves.Rearing of young had a temporary influence on wolves’ activity patterns.Social affiliation markedly modified behavior of wolves,especially during extraterritorial forays and dispersing.Human activity appeared to have no effect on the temporal patterns of wolf activity.Besides,daily activity patterns of wolves in our study area were likely shaped by their pattern of hunting prey.But this hypothesis requires additional research to validate it.In general,wolf activity and travel speed are highly variable even among conspecifics,which reflects the plasticity of their behavior and wide adaptation strategies.For 14 studied wolves of 20 we were able to estimate their annual home ranges,whose average size was 1050±466 km2 by MCP 100%method,and 295.2± 115 km2 and 29.8± 11.3 km2 by the FK 95%and FK 50%methods,respectively(MCP-minimum-convex-polygon,FK-Kernel method;mean±SD;planar size).The smallest mean home range sizes estimated using all methods were in the breeding season.However,the seasonal effect was significant between seasons only for the home range core area(50%FK)and was much less marked compared to the circadian effect.But when considered in interaction with the circadian period,we found that wolves used larger home ranges during the night compared to daylight hours(100%MCP.paired t-test,t=-6.740,df=14.P<0.000;95%FK,t=-6.866,df=14,P<0.000;50%FK,t=-6.509,df=14,P<0.000),especially wolves restricted their diurnal movements during the warm and breeding season,as a response adopted by wolves to avoid areas of higher human presence(during the touristic and hay-harvesting season).While some wolves effectively used the state border,as well as protected areas,locating resting places during the daylight in more《safe》sites,and visiting relatively《dangerous》part of home range territory mainly in the night.Wolf spatial patterns were also habitat-mediated.The scale of cover sheltered sites was one of the key factors in space use among studied wolves,revealed by geographically weighted regression(GWR)analyses,during the day and the warm season.This season represents a period during which wolves select such sites within the core area for offspring protection or microclimate selection of homesites,as wolves quickly get overheated in summer(including to facilitate thermoregulation of pups).Avoiding the higher levels of human activity during the day as well drive the selection of better cover sheltered sites,as the distance from human buildings was revealed as one of the key variables of the GWR model for day locations.Besides,a tight territorial mosaic with little or no territorial interstices,an overlap,and proximity among adj acent wolf territories confirm that intra-specific constraints are the key factor in space use and wolves’home range location in the Daursky State Nature Biosphere Reserve.This statement was proved by the results of the GWR models,as the distance to the nearest pack border was one of the main explanatory variables among different seasons.Therefore,despite the season,wolves tended to avoid the territory of neighboring packs.The abundance of the Mongolian gazelle within home range territories of studied wolves has increased approximately 10 times over the past 12-15 years,providing predators with a rapid increase in food resources,and,as we revealed,the high density of gazelle conclusively attracted wolves during the night.Nevertheless,three home ranges’ sizes remained relatively large and did not significantly change among studied wolves year by year.The density of the Mongolian gazelle was not of key importance in GWR analyses,as well.This indicate that the revealed sizes of wolf home range territory for the Daurian steppes are close to the minimum values and no longer depend on the availability of food.64 cases of livestock predation by wolves were documented between 2015 and 2019 with a total of 283 livestock killed by wolves,an annual mean of 55.4(SD=±1.44)animals/yr and a mean frequency of attack of 12.8 ± 3.89 attacks/yr.Sheep were the main prey of wolves,comprising 77.4%of the total number of livestock killed.Among cattle and horses,wolves preferred to kill juveniles rather than adults.Attacks on livestock were relatively rare,compared to protected areas in the steppe zone of Central Asia(e.g.,Hulun Lake National Nature Reserve,Ikh Nart Nature Reserve,Hustai Nature Reserve,etc).The wolf depredation rates in the study area were 17.7 times less than in adjust areas in Mongolia and 10.6 times less than in Aginsky District.Predations only occurred in situations where there were no protective actions,like a shepherd or protective corral.Wolf attacks were caused primarily by circumstances that increased the chances for depredation.Overall,the mean annual loss of livestock due to wolf predation was 14 times less than that of natural losses due to other causes(e.g.,diseases,juvenile mortality).Attitudes towards wolves were mostly neutral to negative,and the higher the level of income estimated by respondents,the less negative the attitude towards the wolf,while the wolves caused the damage was exaggerated by pastoralists.Based on our study area features,to effectively reduce depredation,we recommend the following management actions:pasture livestock under the constant supervision of shepherds,including,if possible,horses;tighten control over young animals and keep them as long as possible in strong corrals or barns;do not let horses graze unattended in remote areas;and properly dispose of livestock carcasses.In addition,it is necessary to provide scientifically-based information on wolf ecology and how to mitigate conflicts among local people,as one driver of the increased conflicts and negative attitudes may be a poor knowledge of wolf behavior.And any efforts focused on public education about wolf management should target the entire people living next to wolves,rather than on just those directly affected by wolves.This analysis highlights the need for further studying of wolfs ecology and conflicts’nature,livestock management and public education geared towards wolves to prevent and mitigate wolf-livestock conflicts in the Russian part of the Dauria ecoregion.The results of this study are novel to the study area and expand fundamental knowledge of wolf ecology.